Collective Action Problem Essay Example for Free

Collective Action Problem EssayProblem Statement Competitors Coca- cola and Pepsi-cola have to decide whether or not to offer displace pricing.Matrix-Pepsi colaCoca- colaPricing StrategyDiscount priceRegular priceDiscount price$4b, $2b$8b, $1bRegular price$2b, $5b$6b, $4b* b bureau billionDescription Both companies can choose one outcome by offering a deduction price or a perpetual price. The payoff for each firm depends upon the pricing strategies of both firms. For coca- cola the worst case scenario is $2 billion payoff when it offers mending prices while Pepsi- low-down charges discount prices. Similarly, for Pepsi- Cola the worst case scenario is $1 billion.Solution A dilemma is involved because each party would like to have maximum benefits by offering the discount and hoping that the other doesnt. The only secure means both companies have of avoiding meager profits is to offer discount prices. The ideal scenario would have been when both were offering regular pric e as they would have earned $6 billion (Coca- cola) and $4 billion (Pepsi-Cola). But, its difficult to trust each other and thus, they both go for the conservative strategy and settle down for profits of $4 billion and $2 billion for Coca-cola and Pepsi-Cola respectively.

Mango Street Essay Essay Example for Free

mango driveway Essay EssayThroughout history, women have been seen as inferior to men. In the novel, The House On Mango Street, the main character, Esperanza sees many examples of women who are treated lower by their husbands. These women are imprisoned in their own homes on Mango Street. The author, Sandra Cisneros uses the motif of jail Females to show that women have been seen as inferior to men. There were many chapters in the novel in which women were seen as inferior to men.On page 79 in the novel, Rafael gets locked indoors because her husband is afraid Rafaela leave run away since she is too beautiful to look at. Rafael is just one of the many victims of confine Females on Mango Street. She is scared to leave because she thinks her husband will do something, he doesnt want other man to take her away from him. Esperazana could also been considered a Imprisoned Female. All she wants to do is live in a house she can call her own and be free but she is stuck on Mango Str eet where she meets all these other women who are stuck like her and she thinks she will never get out. Men treat women like they are nothing. Why? Because they are scared. Scared that women will leave them for someone better. Scared that women will tell someone of all the awful things they have done to them. Scared that women will finally tell the truth.

Genetically Modified Food And Crops Biology Essay

contractableally Modified Food And Crops Biology Essay ancestral fitting of grooms and food stuffs is one of the major controversial debates in the world. There have been doubts on the precaution of genetically modified foods especially in the area of homosexual health and environmental degradation. Many people have fears that their health could experience unforeseeable effects by altering the genetic content of a position. Genetic modification might have resulted to the growing of infestationicide and herbicide tolerant proves but the new technology has dangerous effects on human health and the environment. Genetic modification of raiments has led to reduced effectiveness of herbicides and pesticides, transferral of genes to species that are not targeted, and has caused harm to classic organisms. It has also caused allergies to most people in different move of the world and raised economic concerns. Though the supporters of the new technology argue that it has led to i ncreased crop yields and alleviation of nutrition deficiencies, genetic modification has on the face of it caused more harm than penny-pinching.IntroductionGenetically modified foods have been used widely in the 21st century and have splashed in the media lately. prevalent awareness groups and European environmental agencies have been frequently protesting against genetically modified foods and crops for years, and the latest controversial studies regarding the effects of GM feed pollen on sovereign toy caterpillars have prompted the issue of genetic engineering hence bringing it to the front position of public awareness in the coupled States. As a result, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has held three public meetings in Washington D.C., Oakland, California, and Chicago to importune opinions by the public and start the procedure of establishing an effective regulatory method for government sanction of genetically modified foods. GM foods have resulted to a dverse effects especially in regard to environmental hazard, human health endangerment, and economic concerns. In respect to this, the government should discourage the growing of genetically modified crops and establish policies that ensure GM foods and crops are labelled (Institute of Medicine U.S. commission on Identifying and Assessing Unintended personal effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on valet de chambre Health 23)Literature ReviewGenetically modified foods and crops refer to plants scientifically created for animal or human consumption using the most recent molecular biology techniques. Basically, these crops are modified in the laboratory to improve nutritional content. Traditionally, enhancement of plants nutritional content was achieved finished breeding but much(prenominal)(prenominal) conventional crop breeding methods proved to be time consuming and not quite true(p) in terms of accuracy (Ferry and Gatehouse 59). On the some new(prenominal) hand, genetic engineering creates crops that rapidly exhibit the exact desired traits with great accuracy. For instance, its possible for a plant geneticist to cut off a drought tolerance gene and insert it to a different plant. Consequently, the genetically-modified plant ordain become drought tolerant aft(prenominal) acquiring the essential gene. Surprisingly, its also possible to transfer non-plant organisms besides the plant-to-plant gene transfer.The Bt or type B thuringiensis, genes transfer to crops such as clavus is a good example of non-plant organisms genes transfer. Bt is a bacterium that occurs naturally and produces insect larvae lethal protein crystals. more(prenominal)over, the Bt protein genes are transferred into edible corn, making it possible for the corn to generate pesticides of its own for instance the European corn borer (Ferry and Gatehouse 60). Pesticide resistant rape plant is on of the genetically modified crops. Scientific researchers have introduced a foreign ge ne to the rape plant which gives the plant the capability to resist certain pesticides. Consequently, a farmer is able to safely sprinkle his genetically engineered rape plants with pesticides and destroying harmful pests without killing the crops. However, there is a contingency that the introduced genes may be transferred to the pests hence making them resistant to the pesticide as well and the plant spray becomes ineffective (Institute of Medicine U.S. Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended make of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health 24).In this context, its possible for rape plants to pollinate the navew weed which occurs in rape crop fields. The navew weed acquires resistance to pesticides afterward gaining the introduced genes from the rape plants. Another example of GM crop is the golden strain which has been genetically engineered to increase its nutrition content by introducing an extra amount of vitamin A. More precisely, golden rice contains the beta-carotene element which is converted into vitamin A by the human body. Beta-carotene is the element responsible for the orange strain found in carrots and the golden colour in this particular rice. However, for the rice to produce beta-carotene, two genes from daffodils and one from bacterium must be implanted (Ferry Gatehouse 60).MethodologyThe weigh on genetically-modified crops/foods is very important and adequate information is required to determine the possible downfalls of the new technology. Books by reputable authors will be used to gather sufficient information on the topic. Additionally, relevant articles touching on the current progress of the new technology will also be used to realize recent discoveries.Discussion intrinsic breeding techniques have been used safely for the past numerous thousands of years. On the contrary, Genetically modified plant technology abrogates reproductive processes that occur naturally, selection takes nates at the single cell stage, the process is extremely mutagenic and more often than not break awayes genera barriers even after being in use for about ten years. In spite of these differences, the assessment on the safety of genetically modified crops is often based on the substantial equivalence idea such that In case a new crop or food is found to be considerably equivalent in nutritional and composition characteristics to an already existing crop/food, it may be regarded as harmless as the conventional food/crop (Gordon 144). Nevertheless, a number of animal studies designate wicked health risks linked to GM crop/food consumption including dysregulation of genes related to synthesis of cholesterol, accelerated aging, and protein formation.Religious organizations, Environmental activists, professional organizations, public interest groups, and other government and scientist officials have raised their concerns about genetically modified foods/crops. Agribusiness pursues profits showing minimal concern for possible environmental and human health hazards as well as economic concerns.Environmental hazardsReduced pesticide and insecticide effectiveness most insects and pests are samely to develop resistance to Bt just like some mosquito species have developed resistance to DDT pesticide which has already been banned from the market. In addition, there is a possibility that insects and pests may develop resistance to pesticides produced by genetically-modified crops. This will eventually lead to destruction of large amounts of crops both in the field and in the store.Harm to other organisms In reference to a laboratory study published last year, 2009, pollen from Bacillus thuringiensis corn caused a high rate of deaths in monarch butterfly caterpillars. These caterpillars do not consume corn but milkweed plants, but there is a possibility that pollen from Bt may be blown by wind onto the neighbouring milkweed field and hence the caterpillars will consume them and die. Even though the st udy wasnt conducted on natural field, the results are likely to support this viewpoint. Unfortunately, Bacillus thuringiensis toxins indiscriminately kill many insect larvae species, its unworkable to produce a Bt toxin that only kills pests that are crop-damaging and remain safe to other insects (Heller 227). However, this study is under re-examination by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USDA, and other non-governmental research agencies. Interestingly enough, data from recent studies suggests that data from the original study may not have been accurate. Currently, the debate on the results of these studies is still on-going, and the possible risk of harm to organisms that are not targets will need make headway evaluation (Institute of Medicine U.S. Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health 50).Gene transfer to non-target species Another major concern is that crops modified for herbicide toler ance and field weeds might cross-breed, hence leading to the transfer of the resistance genes from plant crops into the adjacent weeds. The resulting weeds will be super and are more likely to become tolerant to the herbicide as well. separate new genes may cross into non-engineered plant crops adjacent to GM crops. The interbreeding possibility is shown by the farmers defence against labelling of GM foods. A good example is the Monsanto case, where the social club has filed exclusive rights intrusion lawsuits against GM crops farmers (Gordon 144).The only possible airs through which GM crop farmers can resolve these environmental hazards is by creating male unimaginative plants. This will ensure that non-target species do not receive new genes from GM crops. On the other hand, the farmers can modify the GM crops in a way that the pollen doesnt consist of the introduced genes. Consequently, there would be no possibility of cross-pollination and harmless insects would survive aft er consuming pollen from GM crops (Ferry and Gatehouse 121).Another probable solution will be creating polisher zones around GM crop fields. For instance, non-GM corn can be cultivated to surround a Bt. GM corn field, although the non-GM corn should not be harvested. Harmless or beneficial insects would take refuge in the non-GM corn, and pests can be allowed to wipe out the non-GM corn field without developing resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis pesticides. The wind-blown pollen will not cross over to weeds or other crops since the buffer zone wouldnt let it. Nonetheless, this place method maybe unpractical if large buffer zone acreage is required (Ferry and Gatehouse 150).Human health risksAllergenicity Allergy emergence is one of the most common human health threat posed by genetically modified foods (Puszta 2001). In the event of genetic modification, a protein with allergic effects could be transferred to a different crop. Additionally, allergic effects could be exacerbated through the biotechnology process, and new proteins that become allergens could be created in GM crops. For example, lots of children and grown-ups in Europe and the United States have developed allergies that are life-threatening to foods such as peanuts. There is likelihood that plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic reaction in susceptible individuals. A good example is the Brazil nut-to-beans genes transfer proposal that was rejected because of its possible allergic reactions. However, GM foods may require extensive testing in put up to avoid possible consumer harm through allergies (Gordon 144).Unknown effects on human health Transferring or introducing alien genes into food crops may result to unlooked-for negative effects on human health. An article recently published in Lancet scrutinized the effects of genetically-modified potatoes on the digestive system in rats. This study argued that there were significant differences in the intestines of GM potato fed ra ts and those of rats fed naturally cultivated potatoes. Until now critics argue that this results, like the monarch butterfly data, is awry(p) and doesnt hold up to scientific examination. Furthermore, the gene transferred into the potatoes was lectin, a snowdrop flower already known to be poisonous to mammals. The research scientists who produced this variety of potato discrete to use lectin gene just to test the methodology, because these potatoes were not intended for animal or human consumption (Gordon 143).Economic concernsIntroducing GM foods to market is a expensive and lengthy process, and certainly agri-biotech companies aspire to ensure a cost-effective return on their investment. Several new plant genetic-modification technologies and GM crops/foods have been unapproved and patent breach is a great concern of agribusiness. Yet consumer advocates are concerned that patenting the new plant varieties is likely to raise seed prices so high such that pocketable farmers and three world nations will be unable to come up with the money for GM crop seeds, thus increasing the gap between the well-situated and the poor. People are hoping that in a compassionate gesture, more non-profits and companies will offer their products at a fair cost to poor countries (Ferry and Gatehouse 172). Enforcement of patent may turn-out to be difficult, as the farmers contention that they unwillingly grew Monsanto-modified strains when their crop plants were cross-pollinated. Introducing a suicide gene into GM plants would be an excellent way of contesting possible patent breach. These crop plants would be feasible for one planting season and would produce seeds that dont germinate since they will be sterile. Farmers would have to purchase a fresh supply of planting seeds yearly. However, this would strain farmers financially especially in third world nations where they cannot afford to purchase seeds every year (Ferry and Gatehouse 173).In contrast, genetic-modified crop s have been known to exhibit pest resistance. Insect pests can cause serious crop destruction and loss, hence resulting in distressing financial loss for farmers and prolonged starvation in third world countries. Most farmers buy and use many tons of insecticides and pesticides yearly. Moreover, pesticides can cause potential health hazards and excessive use can contaminate piss sources and the environment. Cultivation of genetically-modified crops can eliminate the need for pesticides hence minimizing on costs. However, this method may harm pests that are important for crop growth processes such as pollination. Apart from this, genetically-modified plant crops exhibit herbicide tolerance. Considering that physical weed removal may not be cost-effective for certain crops, farmers are forced to spray large quantities of herbicides to destroy weeds which is expensive and time-consuming. Cultivating plant crops that are genetically-modified to resist a powerful herbicide might help in preventing environmental taint by minimizing on the herbicides used.Despite the risks involved in genetic-modification of crops/foods, the biotechnology industry continues to claim that genetically-engineered crops can feed the entire world by producing higher crop yields. Nutrition Malnutrition has been reported to be a major problem in developing countries where poor people depend on crops such as rice as their key staple food. Nevertheless, such foods do not contain sufficient amounts of nutrients necessary to prevent malnutrition. If such crops were to be genetically-modified to contain extra minerals and vitamins, deficiencies of nutrients could be alleviated. However, an up to date report by Union of Concerned Scientists analyzed twelve academic studies and indicated that GM foods form a small percentage of the worlds produced food. Bt. corn proved to be the only exception since a high yield in GM corn was reported. As a matter of fact, the report further sated that the signi ficant increase in crop yields was as a result of improvements in traditional breeding (Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health 101).ConclusionGenetically-modified foods/crops may be the potential solution to many of global malnutrition and hunger problems, and to aid in preserving and defend the environment by minimizing dependence upon chemical herbicides and pesticides, and increasing crop yield. Nevertheless, there are several challenges ahead for farmers and national governments, particularly in the areas of, international policy, regulation, safety testing, and GM food labelling. Needless to say, genetic-modification is the inevitable future wave and that the society may not afford to ignore this technology though it has several dangers which overbalance its benefits to both the consumer and the farmer. However, members of the society must carry on with caution to avoid causing env ironmental hazards and unintentional harm to human health as a result of enthusiasm for this new technology.RecommendationsConsidering that GM foods pose serious health risks in the areas of allergy, reproductive health, metabolic, and immune function, farmers ought to adopt the precautionary principle. This principle is the key European Union environmental regulatory tool and health policy which has formed numerous international agreements. The precautionary approach is to be applied by nations in accordance with their capabilities in protecting the environment. In case of serious threats of irreversible damage, presence of limited scientific certainty should not be utilized as a reason for postponing gainful measures to prevent degradation of the environment. Bearing the precautionary principle in mind, physicians should educate the public, patients, and the medical community to avoid genetically-modified foods if possible and offer educational materials on health risks arising fr om GM foods. Moreover, the scientific and medical community should gather information related to health effects resulting from the consumption of GM foods. This may include conducting research on safe and effective methods of considering GM foods effects on human health. Lastly, implementing long term labelling and safety testing methods of genetically-modified foods/crops will be an important factor.

Evaluation and the use of concept mapping

Evaluation and the pulmonary tuberculosis of excogitation procedureA concept is a thought, notion, or an abstract idea developed from a situation or particular instance experienced by the pupil. opinion chromosome role consists of diagrams that represent an directd visualization of a concept and its associations or explanations (Novak Gowin, 1984). The use of concept mapping as an pedagogicsal tool is healthy established finished numerous branches of acquire, including nursing (Schanze Grb-Niehaus, 2008 MacNeil, 2007 Trochim, 2009). Knowledge derived from the nursing procedure flows remarkably well into the over whole design of a concept map. Although similar to other types of knowledge mapping, concept mapping bequeaths a unique structure to gather major concepts together with direct linkages that bottom be easily visualized and readily examined.Properly prepared concept mapping will everyow the learner to venture into all the acquisition domains, including c ognitive, affective, and psychomotor as well as allow the educator to move from a teacher-centered learning surroundings to one that is learner-centered. sentiment mapping is intentional to resurrect meaningful learning by the student, and allow for an effective formative or summative evaluation method by the educator. As the map is designed, the learner john incorporate new knowledge and reject inaccurate concepts and ideas. The map can besides refine knowledge with examples or events, and allow for learning quite a than route memorization. For the educator, the concept map can demonstrate the depth of the learners knowledge, and visually depict what the educator must emphasize to complete the learning military operation. The educator can also rapidly develop further learning opportunities through critical persuasion exercises employing proposed changes to existing concept maps. imagination function Theory excogitation mapping was developed in 1972 as part of an effort at Cornell University to study the ability of young children to obtain basic scientific concepts. The design was the result of question into the cognitive psychology of learning and the constructivist epistemology. Based on Ausubels theory of learning, concept mapping attempts to emphasize the difference mingled with rote learning and meaningful learning (Novak Caas, 2006). Rote learning occurs when new information is added to the learners prior knowledge frame defecate in a random and verbatim fashion. Thus, there is little durable structure and the new information is rapidly forgotten. In meaningful learning, the new information is think to the learners prior knowledge framework in a witting and purposeful manner, thus producing a stable structure and substantial change in the way the learner experiences learning, in other words a abstract change (National Institute for Science Educations College Level One Team, University of Wisconsin, n.d.). This relationship is rendern in Figure 1.Further studies and collaboration on concept mapping use and design, including work at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC) in Florida, led to integration of concept mapping with computer easyware tools and modifyd rapid application of the concept mapping framework to numerous disciplines. Concept Mapping DesignIn concept mapping, graphical representations are arranged in two predominant manners. First, in the ranked fashion, the main topic or question is displayed at the top of the diagram, with inclusive and general concepts near the top and specific, less general concepts arranged in a progressively downward pattern (see Figure 2). The other roughly common concept map design is in a circular fashion, known as the spider method, with the core topic or idea in the center immediately surrounded by inclusive and general concepts, becoming less specific and more general the further from the core (see Figure 3). separate less common concept mapping metho ds include the flow path method, where concepts are linked together in a progressively linear fashion to represent a final concept, and the systems method, where input and output concepts are related to the central concept in a production-line style of visualization. Still other methods of concept mapping may be developed to reflect the learners or the educators vision of representation.Typically, concepts are wrap in boxes, circles, or other geometric shapes with the relationships identified by connecting lines. There are descriptors on the connecting lines that specify the nature of the relationships. Concepts may also be cross-linked to show relationships amidst domains of knowledge or concepts located in different areas of the map (Caas, 2003). Examples, events, or possible solutions can also be included, although these may not be boxed or circled, and the connecting lines can be dashed or dotted to represent an unsubstantiated relationship.Concept Mapping ConstructionMany met hods can be used to construct a concept map. In general, the process will begin as follows identify a question related to a process or problem identify the key concepts of the process or problem rank these concepts in order by identifying the intimately descriptive and broadest concept indeed narrowing the descriptions until the most specific concept is listed last connect the concepts by links, using notations to represent the relationship between the concepts and enable meaning to the linkage provide examples, including social, personal, and professional examples to clarify the concept or the relationship between concepts and then continue to link, add examples, and support the relationships. Some constructors may find it useful to work out this design using post-it notes or index cards, and arranging their ideas on a table or white board to allow for ease of concept ranking, as well the ability to provide easy changes of relationships and rapid visualization of data. The novi ce and expert alike may also use various shapes and colors to repoint concepts and subconcepts to make the map clearer.Concept Mapping SoftwareAlthough concept mapping may be performed with pen, paper, and other non-electronic methods, there are a number of software programs that can be used to provide a variety of concept maps with ranges of detail. In addition to using traditional word-processing programs such(prenominal) as Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, or Corel WordPerfect or Corel Draw to construct concept maps, specific concept mapping software has been developed. The IHMC, a coalition of Florida universities, has developed Cmap Tools, a robust concept map developer that is unfreeze for use (IHMC, 2009). This software also includes a search feature that allows the user to search a commodious variety of public Cmap databases for sample concept maps.Other software programs that are specific to concept map turn includes Axon Idea Processor, 3D Topicscape, Inspiration, MindGenious, MindMapper, MindView, Semantica, SmartDraw, Spinscape, and Tinderbox. Several of these software packages are available in double programming formats, in addition to several(prenominal) languages, and are free for download.Concept Mapping ExampleAs an example to demonstrate concept-mapping construction, a learner is appoint to research the disorder process sepsis, and make a presentation to the class. The learner studies several peer reviewed journal articles (DellaCroce, 2009 Nelson, LeMaster, Plast, Zahner, 2009 Steen, 2009) to obtain the latest information on the disease process, and decides to develop a concept map to explain the pathophysiology, risk factors, diagnostic tests, and treatments for sepsis. The learner develops a table to highlight the ideas that will be outlined on the concept map (see Table 1). Finally, using the CmapTools Knowledge Modeling Kit, Version 5.03, the learner prepares the concept map (see Figure 4).Preparation for Developing a Concep t MapStepsResponses1. Identify a question related to a process or problemWhat is sepsis? How is it diagnosed? What are the signs and symptoms? How is it treated?2. Identify the key concepts of the process or problemInvading Microorganism, Sepsis, insurgent Response, Organ Failure, Systemic Inflammatory Response, Septic Shock, Treatments, Risk Factors, Infection, Death3. Rank these concepts in order by identifying the most descriptive and broadest concept, then narrowing the descriptions until the most specific concept is listed last Rank1) Invading Microorganism2) Infection3) Inflammatory Response4) Systemic Inflammatory Response5) Sepsis6) Septic Shock, Severe Sepsis7) Organ Failure8) Treatment, Risk Factors, Diagnostic Tests9) Death4. Connect the concepts by links, using notations to represent the relationship between the concepts and enable meaning to the linkageLinks are Pathophysiology, Leads To, Plus, Can Lead To, Organ Failure5. Provide examples, including social, personal, and professional examples to clarify the concept or the relationship between conceptsVital Signs, Signs of Organ Failure, Criteria for Determining SepsisTable 1 Preparation for Developing a Concept MapConcept Mapping AdvantagesConcept maps provide several advantages over other methods of instruction and evaluation. Concept maps can provide the learners access to a big picture view of the topic of interest, allowing the student to advance to conceptual understanding rather than simple memorization or rote learning. This in turn can provide the student the bases for critical thinking. Concept maps are also easy to construct. Concept maps can also be used as both an instructional strategy for the educator or a learning natural process for the learner. As a learning activity, the student can acquire the desired knowledge, performance, and behaviors specified by the curriculum (Caputi Blach, 2008).In situations such as developing act education opportunities for existing nursing staff, the use of concept mapping can aid in learning new content through visualization, as many staff prefer visual or kinesthetic learning ( nurse Times, 2009).In cases where students need a platform to reduce anxiety generated prior to testing overdue to a lack of surety on whether the critical aspects of a clinical lesson were studied, the use of concepts maps can help students organize data, determine complex relationships between patient data and disease processes, and provide the student with an overall picture of the care provided to their patient (Hsu, 2004).Concept Mapping DisadvantagesAlthough concept mapping has many advantages, some disadvantages exist. The wide variety of possible concept map designs can lead to additional evaluation time by the educator as students use different construction techniques. Grading of the differing concept maps may also lead to difficulties unless the educator uses strict grading criteria, such as a detailed assignment rubric. The use of conc ept mapping may also require a paradigm shift by learners used to only the memorization method of learning. This can sometimes vex difficulty as the learner transitions to the new method of learning. Concept Mapping Use in Learning DomainsThe cognitive domain includes knowledge and skill development. As cognitive learning occurs, the learner is able to recall facts, patterns, and concepts that will result in the development of intellect. Concept mapping is primarily based on the cognitive domain, as the learner combines concepts into a framework that can develop critical conceptions and critical thinking.The affective domain includes learning that is based on our interaction with our surroundings through feelings, values, motivations, and attitudes. Concept mapping draws into the affective domain through the construction of the framework, and the use of the environment to provide definition to the concept, and the use of values, attitudes, and feelings to link the concepts togethe r to promote understanding.The psychomotor domain includes learning in the physical domain, such as movement, coordination, and development of motor skills. Psychomotor learning is measured through speed, precision, and techniques in execution. Concept mapping lends well to learning in the psychomotor domain, as the learner physically constructs the concept map using a variety of tools and software.Concept Mapping in Nursing EducationConcept mapping is used at several levels in nursing education. By using concept mapping as a learning process in nursing undergraduate education, the educator can develop and refine critical thinking skills in the learner through generating ideas, promoting nonlinear relationships between patient data and complex disease processes, and forcing the learner to visualize the application of nursing theory to nursing practice (Abel Freeze, 2006 Phelps, Wallen, Cusack, Castro, Muehlbauer, et al., 2009).One of the most common uses of concept mapping in nursi ng is the use of concept mapping to demonstrate the nursing process in care planning. Each parcel of the nursing process (assessment, diagnosis, planning, intervention, and evaluation) can be presented around a disease process or patient problems can be identified and relationships established between the problems to develop a holistic perspective of patient care (Taylor Wros, 2007). See Figure 5.Concept mapping can also be used effectively in formative, as well as summative assessment. In the formative assessment, the educator can provide a baseline concept map with the major concept listed and several basic relationships identified prior to lecture. The student can use the concept map during the lecture to identify further concepts and relationships, and build upon the baseline concept map to develop their knowledge base. Once the lecture is completed, the educator can use the learners maps to evaluate the intensity of their lecture, as well as the effectiveness of the learne rs attention, by examining the completed concept maps and comparing these maps to the lectures objectives (MacNeil, 2007). The baseline concept map can also be developed by the learner prior to class, such as in a homework assignment, and then completed during lecture as well.Figure 5 Sample care plan concept map (Ackley Ladwig, 2006).In a summative assessment, the educator can require a summative concept map at the end of the course to evaluate overall course objectives, as well as provide the learner with a valuable tool for future reference.Concept Mapping Function in a Learner Centered EnvironmentConcept mapping has been used in both undergraduate and graduate nursing as an analytical tool to organize existing knowledge, synthesize new knowledge, and prioritize information in a logical, visual sequence. Concept mapping develops nonlinear cognitive function that can promote critical thinking and clinical decision making in nurses (Wilgis McConnell, 2008). This makes concept map ping an ideal strategy to switch the classroom from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered environment the learner can develop, adapt, and draw their learning directly from the concept map. Concept maps can be used by learners individually, or in small groups, to alter complex processes and engage students in the learning process (Harrelson, 2006).As study guides, the concept maps can replace traditional question and answer study handouts with a visual map that can promote meaningful learning opposed to rote memorization (Caputi Blach, 2008).SummaryConcept maps represent a collaborative learning strategy developed to take advantage of the difference between rote learning and meaningful learning. Concept maps can be used in all aspects of both undergraduate and graduate nursing, and can be used to facilitate education in all learning domains. As learners begin to analyze clinical data, the learner can begin to develop their critical thinking skills and begin to plan comprehensiv e care for their patients. As learners begin to study disease processes, the learners can appreciate the effects of interventions directly on patient outcomes. Educators can use concept mapping as a teaching, as well as evaluation strategy.ReferencesAbel, W., Freeze, M. (2006, kinfolk). Evaluation of concept mapping in an associate degree nursing program. ledger of Nursing Education, 45(9), 356-364. Retrieved awful 30, 2009, from CINAHL with abounding schoolbook database.Ackley, B. J. Ladwig, G.B. (2006). Nursing Diagnosis Handbook, (7th ed.). moment Mosby Elsevier.All, A., Huycke, L. (2007, May). Serial concept maps tools for concept analysis. journal of Nursing Education, 46(5), 217-224. 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Athletic Therapy Today, 11(1), 25-27. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database.Heinrich, K. (2001, April). Mind-mapping a successful technique for organizing a literature review. Nurse Author Editor (10542353), 11(2), 4. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database.Hicks-Moore, S., Pa stirik, P. (2006). Evaluating critical thinking in clinical concept maps a pilot study. International journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 3(1). Retrieved August 30, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database.Hsu, L. (2004, December). Developing concept maps from problem-based learning scenario discussions. Journal of mod Nursing, 48(5), 510-518. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from CINAHL with Full Text database.IHMC. (2009). Download IHMC Cmap tools. Retrieved October 14, 2009 from cmap.ihmc.us/download.Irvine, L. (1995, June). Can concept mapping be used to promote meaningful learning in nurse education?. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21(6), 1175-1179. 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Critical Essay On Human Error In Healthcare System Nursing Essay

Critical Essay On Human Error In Healthcargon System Nursing EssayThe potentially crushing consequences of accidents means the NHS has a clear mandate to prioritise wellness check examination error reduction, whilst utilising energy, attention, and creativity towards delivering high- actionance, high-confidence wellness care (DoH, 2000). The application of psychological theories of human action and error has an distinguished part to play within this endeavour, not least because they exceed the merely descriptive, instead combining cognitive, affective and behavioural considerations to provide more integrated understandings of longanimous resort issues (Parker Lawton, 2006). Indeed, according to Zhang and colleagues (2002, p.75) medical error is primarily an issue for cognitive sciencenot for medicine.Psychology has a long and distinguished tradition of crafty the nature and sources of human error (e.g., Broadbent, 1958 Rasmussen, 1990 Reason, 2000) and, in terms of patient sa fety, researchers are increasing recognising that appreciating such mechanisms is a vital prerequisite for devising suitable remedy (Parker Lawton, 2003, 2006). One important distinction in this regard is between the concept of slips/lapses (a sound plan, poorly executed), mistakes (an inappropriate plan, correctly implemented) and violations (a deliberate deviation from recommended practice). In origin to the latter, which are generally intentional, slips/lapses and mistakes are primarily driven by failures in cognitive processing, and are therefore amenable to interventions based on knowledge acquisition, skills enhancement, and info provision (Lawton, 1998). It is these particular principles that form the basis of this review.Practitioner ErrorsError in the health industry is ubiquitous, and the capacity for mistakes within even routine medical procedures is capacious (Bogner, 2004a). For example, a sobering compilation by Van Cott (1994) identified medication/anesthesia adm inistration, laboratory testing, blood transfusions, diagnostic screening and the operation of medical engineering science as regular candidates for two incident reporting and malpractice claims. However, while healthcare providers conventionally accentuated refining technical proficiencies, appreciating the intricacy of staffs cognitive performance (and develop strategies to augment it) has a greater handlelihood of enhancing safety (Hudson, 2003 Looseley et al., 2009 Zhang et al., 2004).According to Casey (1993, p.9) the individual as an independent system (i.e., unhampered by any kind of technology) is truly remarkably reliable conversely, error likelihood is amplified by incompatibilities between the characteristics of peopleand the characteristics of the things we create and use. Applying psychological principles within healthcare systems has shown that working conditions, conventions, and procedures can be trig to complement what we know about human behaviour, and that this wisdom can be utilised in a corrective way. Psychological research within different high-risk industries demonstrates that while mental operations a good deal function beyond voluntary control, it is both possible and desirable to modify conditions in which staff perform (Green, 2004 Raab et al., 2006 Wilf-Miron et al., 2003). For example, McCulloch and colleagues (2009) designed an intervention derived from aviation-style Crew Resource Management coaching, implemented in the operating theatre of a UK teaching hospital. The programme, comprised of teamwork skills, safety attitudes and performance training, was associated with significant reductions in operative technical errors and non-operative procedural errors. Similar results have been reported by Haller et al. (2008), who found that aviation-style training contributed to a significant improvement in multidisciplinary teamwork and organisational safety culture.In contrast, Rogers and colleagues (2004) advocate designing n urses work-shift cycles in concordance with current psychological knowledge about the impact of sleep disruption on acuity and performance, whereas Laschinger and Finegan (2005) suggest using empowerment principles derived from organisational psychology (e.g., workplace trust, respect, and justice) to motivate staff to lend their energy and expertise to prioritising patient safety. In more cognitive terms, Valenstein (2008) used tenets from the psychology of percept (e.g., optimized information density, ease of transfer, maximized fidelity/speed) to devise strategies for pathologists to format surgical reports in a manner that communicates most effectively and limits the chance of misinterpretation. Similarly, Shojania (2002) suggests that research inspired both by cognitive psychology and accident investigation within other industries provides the raw materials for predicting errors, recording critical incidents, and reacting to them in a proactive, non-punitive manner.According t o Reason (1994, p.ix) blaming sapless individualsis universal, natural, emotionally satisfying and legallyconvenient. Unfortunately it has little or no remedial value1. One of the most basic principles of error management that fugitive mental states like preoccupation, disorientation, and distraction are mostly inadvertent and hugely variable has been guided by psychological research into human performance that emphasise the necessity of systems-based approaches which identify latent organisational failures in addition to active individual errors (Bogner, 2004b). Medical systems incorporate vast, intricate arrays of disparate and semi-autonomous components, operating within variable, diffused and maverick circumstances. Indeed, according to Van Cott (1994, p.55) of all sociotechnical systems healthcare deliveryis the largest, most complex, most costly and, in some respects, the most unique. Furthermore, it is grounded within a person-centred, person-driven system, with human op erators its most ubiquitous and important element. Using the science of human thought and behaviour to enhance and refine human performance therefore appears a profitable way of pursuing healthcare quality and safety.Patient ErrorsPoor adherence to self-administered medical interventions is a pervasive, wide-ranging problem which compromises the efficacy of prescribed healthcare, squanders therapeutic resources and, most seriously, potentially endangers patient wellbeing (Park et al., 2004 Roter et al., 1998 Thomas, 2009). Research suggests that at least 50% of patients fail to receive the full benefit of therapeutic recommendations (e.g., preventative practices, medication regimens, lifestyle modification) due to inadequate service of medical advice (Morisky et al., 2009), whereas up to 30% use drug prescriptions in a manner that poses a serious risk to health (Schmittdiel et al., 2008). Both conceptually and methodologically, medical compliance raises complex issues for patient s and providers, meaning that a careful consideration of the problem is necessary before significant and meaningful enhancements in adherence (and consequent health status) can be achieved (Haynes et al., 1996).An important contribution from psychology for precluding self-care errors is a systematic understanding of the cognitive changes that may provoke them. Specifically, memory and comprehension deficits are a manifest cause of poor compliance (Park et al., 2004). This is particularly prevalent in terms of age-related cognitive decline, although even younger adults with high cognitive functioning are not exempt from the kind of intellective impairments that thwart the ability to attend to ones medical needs. This is consistent with the well-established finding that declines in cognitive ability are gradual, continuous and analogue across the adult lifespan (Baltes Lindenberger, 1997). For example, medical errors in elderly individuals may be partly generated by deteriorations in processing speed, working memory and long recall (Davis et al., 2010 Hayes et al., 2009 Stoehr et al., 2008), which impede the ability to both encode and retrieve unfamiliar medical regimens, or to incorporate them into a treatment plan compatible with daily routine. In contrast, deficits in time-based prospective memory (Woods et al., 2009), working memory (Smith, 2007), and source memory (Park et al., 2004) can compromise the capacity of younger adults to adequately self-manage medical recommendations, an effect exacerbated amongst those who are inexperienced healthcare consumers (Park, 1999), or who are subject to excessive distraction, stress or fatigue (Stilley et al., 2010). Similarly, the illusion of truth effect, whereby statement repeat heightens perceived truth (Begg, 1992), is a powerful memory distortion to which adults of all ages are susceptible, and which can be dangerous in the medical realm if ridiculous information is remembered as true (for example, a conscient ious clinician who repeatedly extols the futility of herbal remedies for diabetes may risk her patient paradoxically recalling herbal remedies as advantageous, due to failures in context-dependent memory Park et al., 2004).In response to this, psychological research has informed a range of interventions to reduce medical self-management errors. For example, providing older adults with novel information in written form promotes assimilation done decreasing burdens on working memory (Tsai, 2006), whereas comprehension and decision-making can be enhanced through environmental supports like audiovisual materials, telephone instruction, and follow-up sessions with a healthcare provider (Myers Midence, 1998). Cognitive resources may also be supplemented with contextual supports, which help consolidate memory for health communications at the time of encoding and retrieval for patients of all ages. For example, simplified treatment regimens, or those that are conveniently tailored to dail y habits (Smith, 2007), medication organizers and reminder pill packaging/prescription refills (Petersen et al., 2007), supportive home visits (Kripalani et al., 2007), behavioural contracting and modelling (Christensen Johnson, 2002), text-message prompts (Matsui, 2009), and electronic beepers (Kalichman, 2005), have all been shown to consistently enhance treatment adherence, with accompanying improvements in treatment outcomes. A considerable benefit of all these strategies is that they employ resources that are readily accessible within clinical settings.ConclusionsAccording to Rasmussen (1994, p.392) patient safety is a frontier for change. An important aspect of this process is effective transfer of research themes into clinical practice. While psychological approaches have facilitated enhanced performance and encyclopedism at both organisational and individual levels, ensuring such improvements remain sustained and intentional is a complex task. Successful diffusion of evi dence-based interventions to real-world applications requires prudent planning, implementation, and evaluation in crop that healthcare quality can be constantly revised and refined. For example, inadequate understandings of the theoretical processes implicated in behaviour change means evidence-based guidelines are often poorly implemented within medical settings (Michie et al., 2005), while the intense rapidity and intricacy of change within healthcare means conflict can live on between academics seeking to develop and refine theories, and the more immediate, practical need of practitioners seeking information on which to develop interventions.In this respect, a promising field of battle for development is increased multidisciplinary working, not only in terms of partnerships between practitioners and psychologists, but in the active involvement and recruitment of patients themselves (DoH, 2005). Collaboration can be seen as the coming together of diverse interests and people to achieve a common purpose via interactionsand coordination of activities(Jassawalla Sashittal, 1998, p.239), with such alliances potentially facilitating the merging of science and practice through enhanced information-sharing, formulating accessible and meaningful research questions, developing shared visions of patient safety, and designing/disseminating interventions using appropriate materials and methods for practitioner/patient needs. As Carr and Kemmis (1996, p.165) observe, within this inhalation isImprovement of a practice of some kindimprovement of the understanding of a practiceandthe improvement of the situation in which the practice takes placeThose gnarled in the practice being considered are to be involved inall its aspects of planning, acting, observing and reflecting for optimum results.1782=1727

Teenagers and Their Tanning Problem Essay -- Health, Skin Cancer

Teenagers and their Tanning Problem30 million people are expected to go flogging this year (Tanning poses risks 1). That means that 30 million people are putting themselves up for the risk of skin genus Cancer, premature aging, and they are putting themselves in a possible unsanitary environment. The tanning industry wants a person to think that the wholly thing that tanning can do for them is to make them tan and beautiful. When in reality, it has the opposite effect. People need to know what they are doing to themselves before they put themselves in a tanning bed. Many people choose not to acknowledge all of the harmful effects that tanning can have on your body. They think that it wont happen to them. But, I will bankrupt facts and statistics to show that everyone is at risk of the possible outcomes that come from using a tanning bed. There are 1 million new cases of skin cancer found each year (No Teen tanning 1). We need to make that number go down. If we make a law that makes a person have to be over 18 to go tanning, many lives would be saved. Tanning salons are not keeping up to their regulations. They are not only lying to us, but are also misleading us in multiple personal manners. A recent survey done where a reporter from The Consumer legal jointure asked employees at tanning salons from 12 different cities multiple questions to see the results. When they did this they found that 75% of employees said their customers could tan everyday, 6% said they would allow them to tan without eyewear, 20% said minors could come without any adult and 35% said that tanning doesnt cause skin cancer (Tanning poses risks 1). These statistics are way too high. Not only are the people at the tanning bed not trustworthy, but so are their actual beds. Emp... ...abit at all. universe 18 is a big step in a teenagers life. They automatically become more responsible and more mature. They should be satisfactory to be mature enough to make the right decision by c hoosing to not go tanning. They would also no longer have the peer constrict while being in high school to look a certain way. This would be a great law that could save lives, but withal protect that American right of freedom to choose what a person does with oneself. Lots of states are taking action and creating new regulations and laws for tanners. Let us be the one who really goes all out. Let us be the one to start something new. People would look to us and think about how much we lot about our people and their lives. If we do create this law, then many lives would be saved. Future cancer patients would no longer exist. Our Indiana State citizens will thank us in the future.

methyl bromide :: essays research papers

Methyl BromideThe Crop Protection Coalition (CPC) suggests that the scientific foundation for the phase out of methyl bromide (CH3Br) whitethorn not be justified. The implication of the CPC is that the effects of CH3Br on stratospheric ozone is likely to continue to decrease because there was a decreasing effect noted as the apprehension progressed through the 1990s. However, the science community completed a major new assessment of stratospheric ozone (Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2002 available through the World Meteorological Organization in Geneva) where little difference was found relative to the findings of the 1998 assessment determination of the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) for methyl bromide. This finding was not surprising. CH3Br still accounts for roughly 50% of the organic bromine reaching the stratosphere. Determination of the ODP for methyl bromide primarily depends on the understanding of its total lifetime in the atmosphere, which in turn depends on t he understanding of its remotion processes from the atmosphere. During the 1990s, it was discovered that ocean and soil sinks for methyl bromide need to be considered in determining the lifetime of methyl bromide. Those sinks are now considered in our analyses (a youthful reevaluation of the ocean sink gave results very similar to the analyses used in the 1998 assessment). While there remains some uncertainty in the soil sink, this is unlikely to supercharge change the ODP for methyl bromide in any significant manner. With ocean and soil removal processes now included in the analyses of its ODP, it is unlikely that there give be major changes in the ODP for methyl bromide unless there are significant changes to the understanding of its removal processes. The current evaluated global lifetime for CH3Br is 0.7 years, resulting in an ODP of 0.38. If entirely of the uncertainties in the soil sinks were to go the maximum amount towards increasing the sink, the ODP for CH3Br could dec rease a little more. However, this is extremely unlikely, as it would produce a huge dissimilarity between the sources and sinks, exacerbating the difference already existing in the known sources and sinks. The bottom line is that the ODP for methyl bromide is unlikely to change further.As chlorine in the stratosphere decreases under the effects of the Montreal Protocol, the fact that stratospheric bromine is currently not decreasing means that bromine will become more and more substantial in its effects on ozone.