Art and book making Essay

Books are integral part of everyone’s life. There are different kinds of books and each has its own purpose and meaning. Most books are intended for learning while others are for entertainment purposes and for self-expression on the part of the author. Every book is like a treasure box that is full of valuable things. Most of the time, books are used for academic purposes. Without books, it would be really hard for students to learn and for teachers to prepare their lessons. Books serve as a guide and basis for learning. It would be impossible for present generations to learn about histories of different civilization and time and other knowledge without books. Others also find entertainment by reading books such as story and poetry books. Books also expresses the thoughts, emotions and view of the writer. It can also be said that the machines, equipments and technologies that we are experiencing in the present time is because of the existence of books that recorded many discoveries and studies done in the past. Through these studies, we had been able to make life easier and better in meeting the needs of the people and in doing things. Yet, today it can be said that the importance that we give to books are declining also because of the advancement of technology. However, it is undeniable that books still plays an integral part for learning and development not only in terms of technology but in personal growth as well. Due to the great importance and the role that books play in our society, it is also important to pay attention to the book making process. Making a book is not an easy task and requires a lot of work, time and as well as good ideas. It is also important to consider book making as a form of art, a work of art. Aesthetic is also a consideration in order to be able to create a high quality book that is able to serve its purpose whether it is for educational or entertainment purpose. The very cover of the books requires artistic ideas. It is important to make a good impression to the reader. Definitely a reader will choose a book with an attractive cover. It is an important factor for the readers to get interested in the book from the beginning. There is no way a book will be effective if it is not read and readers will think twice before reading a book with a dull cover. For this reason, most story books have a very colorful cover in order to attract readers especially kids who are funned of reading stories and seeing beautiful pictures. According to James A. Cox, editor-in-chief of Midwest Book Review, the cover is the part of the book that will attract distributors, booksellers, costumers, librarians and reviewers to pick up the book, allotting time opening it and casting eye tracks on the interior of the book. Not only colorful and attractive covers are needed in coming up with a high quality book but the message of the cover as well. This is not an easy task and requires good artistic ability. Although aesthetic is an important part, the main text and body of the book is still the main important part that readers are searching. A cover must give a hint on what the book is all about that is why titles are commonly a part of the cover. The title itself requires creativity. A book needs a catchy title for it to gain the interest of the reader. The title can also tell the reader whether the book is worthy to be read and worthy of their time, money and effort. The main body of the book also requires creativity and art. You don’t just write anything you want in making a book. It must be organized and put in a creative manner in order to maximize its effectiveness. Illustrations and others must be included because it is easier to remember and understand. Making an illustration regarding the important things and information that you want to impart is also a hard task that requires creativity and artistic ability. Any information given and emphasize by the writer will be greatly appreciated if the reader will be able to grasp the idea. Making the body of a book does not only require a good writing skills but the writer must also think of better ways on how to improve the body for the readers. For this reason, most scholarly books include tables, graphs and other representations for better understanding. Thus, book writing must also be considered as a form of art that requires creativity and artistic design. Artistic ability is really needed in book making especially in making story or book of poems. Making poem is not as easy as it looks. The purpose is not simply to entertain but as well as for the writer to express himself/herself in a creative manner. Every part of a book requires good artistic ability in order to be effective and to serve its purpose. The cover needs to be attractive for the readers to take time looking at what the book is all about. The body must also be a work of art for the readers to be satisfied with what they have read. Book making is a form of art and art cannot be separated from book making. Without art, it would be impossible to come up with a high quality, effective and informative book. Creativity and artistic design is a great factor to gain and satisfy the readers. To satisfy the readers is not just beneficial on the part of the reader but for the writer as well. By doing so, the writer will gain the trust of the readers and will be able to build a good reputation. Thus, the possibility of having readers of his or her future works increases because of the reputation that he or she was able to build by meeting the expectations of costumers or readers. The greatest challenge in book making is not the information that is to be included in the book but rather how you can come up with a book that can be considered as a work of art from the cover and to the whole text. A book is not just read, it must be appreciated and the only way to do so is to consider book making as an art that must be appreciated for the contents and as well as for the aesthetics and artistry of the book in general. An effective and successful writer is definitely a creative artist. References Cox, J. ,A. (No date). The importance of book covers. Retreived January 10, 2008 from http://www. midwestbookreview. com/bookbiz/advice/coverart. htm Hunter, L. (2002). The importance of making a good impression. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. berkeley. edu/news/berkeleyan/2002/11/13_bookm. html Sowin, J. (15, April, 2007). The importance of books. Retreived January 10, 2008 from http://www. fireandknowledge. org/archives/2007/04/15/the-importance-of-books-l amott/.

Pas vs Euthanasia

Every human being has the power to make decisions throughout the course of his or her life. People make choices every day, and it is the control that people have over their own lives that allows them to do so. This ability to have options and be able to make decisions should not cease to exist as a patient approaches the end of life. People have the right to believe strongly in personal autonomy and have the determination to control the end of their lives as wished (DeSpelder 238). Toward the end of life, people should still be given the chance to make decisions, in order to allow them some form of control in a life.The option for Physician Assisted Suicide allows for those, who are approaching death, to end their lives without losing any dignity. Physician Assisted Suicide is when a physician intentionally assists a person in committing his or her own suicide by providing drugs for self administration at a voluntary and competent request (Oliver 2006). With Physician Assisted Suicid e, the physician provides the patient with a prescription for a lethal dose of medication, and counseling on the doses and the methods the patient must follow through with to complete the act (Sanders 2007).The physician may be present while the patient self-administers the medication, although this is not legally required. Also, the physician, or any other person, cannot assist the patient in administering the medication (Darr 2007). Physician Assisted Suicide should not be confused with Euthanasia. In the practice of Physician Assisted Suicide, it is the patient who makes the final administration of the lethal medication. As far as Euthanasia is concerned, it is a deliberate action done with the intention to hasten or cause the death of an individual (Sanders 2007).Physician Assisted Suicide is only legal in the state of Oregon, while Euthanasia is illegal across the United States. Even though Euthanasia is illegal, it was performed casually by a physician by the name of Dr. Jack Kevorkian. Dr. Kevorkian would typically start an IV running saline, and allow the patient to then initiate the flow of barbituates and potassium chloride which would result in death (Darr 2007). After having assisted in the deaths of nearly 130 people over the course of ten years, Dr.Kevorkian was found guilty of having given a man a lethal injection which caused the man’s death, and Dr. Kevorkian was sentenced to prison. Although some may see Dr. Kevorkian’s work as wrong and immoral, others support him and his symbol as the public debate on ethical and legal issues surrounding Physician Assisted Suicide (DeSpelder 238). There are many different types or forms of Euthanasia. These types of Euthanasia are: passive euthanasia, active euthanasia, active voluntary euthanasia, and active involuntary euthanasia.Passive euthanasia is the occurrence of a natural death through the discontinuation of life-support equipment or the cessation of life-sustaining medical procedures . Active euthanasia is a deliberate action to end the life of an individual. Voluntary active euthanasia is the intervention of lethal injection to end the life of a mentally competent, suffering individual who has requested to have his or her life put to an end. The last form of Euthanasia is active voluntary euthanasia in which a physician has intervened in such a way to cause the patient’s death, but without the consent from the patient (Scherer 13).One may wish to experience Euthanasia to end his or her life for many reasons. Many patients wish for control and influence over the manner and timing of his or her own death. He or she may also wish to maintain his or her dignity and wish to have relief of severe pain that may be caused by a terminal illness. Other thoughts that may affect the choice for Euthanasia involve wanting to avoid the potential for abuse from his or her doctor, family, health care insurance, and society (Scherer vii).On the other hand, a patient may w ish to pursue Physician Assisted Suicide, or a hastened death, because of an illness related experience such as agonizing symptoms, functional losses, and the effects of pain medications on his or her body. The patient may also feel that the mystery of death is a threat to his or her sense of self, and wish for some sort of control over the matter. Also, patients may fear for the future as far as the quality of life is concerned. A negative past experience with death, and the fear of becoming a burden on amily and friends, can greatly influence a person’s choice to seek Physician Assisted Suicide. As the end of life is approached, care can become much more involved, placing strain on those who are responsible for caring for the dying (Quill 93). In caring for the terminally ill and those near death, certain medications may be prescribed to reduce pain and a patient’s experience with suffering. When administering such medications in an attempt to control symptoms, a phy sician or nurse may inadvertently cause a person’s death. This occurrence is known as ‘double effect’ (Oliver 2006).The doctrine of double effect states that ‘a harmful effect of treatment, even if it results in death, is permissible if the harm is not intended and occurs as a side effect of a beneficial action’ (DeSpelder 238). Because the dosage of medications may need to be adjusted to relieve pain at specific periods of end-of-life, it is likely that respiratory distress may occur soon afterward, leading to death. This has become known as ‘terminal sedation’, yet the Supreme Court has ruled that such instances do not account for Euthanasia or Physician Assisted Suicide because the main intent was to relieve pain (DeSpelder 239).It may appear at times as though the law and medical profession hold strong views that oppose assisting death, but in many ways, they have also shown that under certain circumstances, hastening death can be ju stified. Hastening death through interventions which do not take place in the context of clinical complications, errors, negligence, or deliberate killing have been demonstrated by the legal and professional acceptance of particular cases.Both the law and medical profession allow for the right of a competent adult to refuse any type of treatment, including one which may save his or her life. Doctors are given the right to withdraw or withhold any treatments that he or she sees as futile or not in the patient’s best interest; this includes life saving and life prolonging treatments. As mentioned previously, Doctors are legally also given the right to use their discretion in administering high-dose opiates in the context of palliative care (Sanders 2007).In looking at such scenarios, it is difficult to understand why Physician Assisted Suicide is illegal in all states aside from Oregon, yet similar procedures and actions, that end in the same outcome, are legal in all states. T he only state in which Physician Assisted Suicide is legal is the state of Oregon. Oregon passed the Death with Dignity Act in 1997 which allowed the terminally ill to end their lives voluntarily through the self administration of lethal medications, prescribed by a physician, for this exact purpose (Death).Any physicians, who are against aiding someone in ending his or her life, may refuse to prescribe the lethal medications, but each is given the ability and choice to participate (DeSpelder 237). Although Oregon is the only state in which Physician Assisted Suicide is legal, California, Vermont and Washington all hope to follow in Oregon’s footsteps in legalizing this practice (Ball 2006). Since Physician Assisted Suicide is legal in the state of Oregon, it may be feared that too many people will take advantage of such a utility and that it has potential for abuse (Quill 6).This is not necessarily true. In Oregon, an average of 50 people take full advantage of Physician Ass isted Suicide each year; yet many more than this actually receive the lethal medications and choose not to use them (Oliver 2006). Perhaps it is the feeling of having these medications to fall back on that gives people comfort. People who receive a prescription from their physicians for these lethal medications know that if they ever get to the point where they feel as if they cannot live any longer, they do not have to.Some other facts about patients who choose to follow through with Physician Assisted Suicide are that the majority of those who took the lethal medications were more likely to be divorced or never married rather than married or widowed, had levels of education higher than general education, and had either HIV and AIDS or malignant neoplasms (Darr 2007). Although Physician Assisted Suicide was made legal in Oregon, there have been many instances where the United States Supreme Court has attempted to give Physician Assisted Suicide a bad image.In 1997, the Supreme Cour t compared two cases related to Physician Assisted Suicide. The cases were Washington vs. Glucksberg, and Vacco vs. Quill. In the comparison of these two cases, the Supreme Court looked at withholding and withdrawing treatments against Physician Assisted Suicide. The Court concluded that ‘the right to refuse treatment was based on the right to maintain one’s bodily integrity, not on a right to hasten death’ but when treatments are withdrawn or withheld, ‘the intent is to honor the patient’s wishes, not cause death, unlike PAS where the patient is â€Å"killed† by the lethal medication’ (DeSpelder 237).After examination of such cases, the Supreme Court confirmed that states had the right to prohibit Physician Assisted Suicide, or allow it under some regulatory system. In order to be eligible for Physician Assisted Suicide, there are certain criteria that need to be met. First, the patient must be at least eighteen years old and a legal r esident in the state of Oregon. The patient must be diagnosed with a terminal illness which is determined to provide the patient with less than six months to live.This terminal diagnosis must be confirmed again by a consulting physician. The patient must also be able to communicate his or her health care decisions. A patient is determined to be mentally incompetent in making such decisions, as stated by the Mental Capacity Act of 2005, if he or she is unable to understand information that is relevant to the situation or decision, is unable to retain this information being provided, cannot use or weigh information as part of the natural decision making process, and cannot communicate his or her decision in any manner (Dimond 2006).The request for Physician Assisted Suicide must be a voluntary request, with at least one written request, signed in the presence of at least two witnesses, and two verbal request, both of which must be at least fifteen days apart. If either the attending o r consulting physician feels as though the patient may be depressed, a complete psychiatric examination is done. In addition to these criteria, the physician must also provide information to the patient about hospice care and other comfort measures that may serve as alternatives to Physician Assisted Suicide (Ball 2006).It is important to explore all possibilities for pain management and palliative care to the fullest extent in order to set aside Physician Assisted Suicide as the final resort to ending pain and suffering (Scherer 118). The request for Physician Assisted Suicide is also a prime opportunity for health care providers to examine, explore and address a patient’s fears for the end-of-life (Darr 2007). It is important to hear the request and the feelings behind it, because this could also be a patient’s means for expressing a fear of being kept alive by technological treatments, or even a way of expressing depression.A patient may feel as though it would be e asier to put an end to his or her life rather than to deteriorate (Oliver 2006). Because these possibilities may be so, it is important to analyze a patient’s behavior and requests for death carefully. These requests may not be a true wish to die, but rather what is thought to be an easy way out, or a deep lying psychological issue. It is also recommended that the physician and patient have formed a previous relationship so that there is a clear understanding of the patient’s history and future medical treatment wishes.There must be a discussion between the physician and patient. This discussion facilitates the physician’s understanding of the meaning of the request which will then allow him or her to respond to the patient’s request with both concern and compassion. If both concern and compassion can be developed within the physician-patient relationship, then it is more likely that the physician can accept the patient’s request without encouragin g the patient’s decision to pursue Physician Assisted Suicide (Scherer 118). There are many arguments both for and against the use of Physician Assisted Suicide.The argument for Physician Assisted Suicide is focused primarily on the support of a person’s autonomous decision to end his or her life. It is believed that any person who at the end of his or her life is experiencing unbearable symptoms or distress and feels as though he or she has a poor quality of life, should be able to request assistance in ending his of her life (Oliver 2006). If we are to respect a patient’s wishes, then it is thought that we too should respect a patient’s choice of when and how to die.If a patient has the right to make informed decisions about medical treatment, then this right should naturally extend into his or her informed choice to choose a medically assisted death (Sanders 2007). Those who are against Physician Assisted Suicide believe that a patient’s autonom y should be limited when its exercise has a negative effect on others, and that it undermines a patient’s ability to trust a doctor as a healer (Sanders 2007). Many people also believe that ‘life is a gift from God and no human being has the right to take that gift away’ (Heintz 2007).Fears or worries may arise with the legalization of Physician Assisted Suicide. As health care workers and providers, the job at hand is viewed as maintaining life and improving a patient’s physical condition while performing Physician Assisted Suicide may remove this image. If legalized, the public may find it fearsome that the health care system has become somewhat inconsistent. This is demonstrated when a patient is asked to trust a health care provider in maintaining or improving his or her health while that same provider may be assisting other patients in committing their own suicides (Darr 2007).I chose the topic of Physician Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia because it i s something that I find interesting. There is a constant struggle going on as to whether or not these procedures and actions are ethical, and I thought that it would be interesting to learn more about the topics in order to better develop my own view on the matter. Through my research, my opinion of Physician Assisted Suicide did not change. I had originally viewed Physician Assisted Suicide as a person’s choice and right.Now, I still have the same input on the topic, but I feel as though I could better argue my decision of being for Physician Assisted Suicide rather than against it. I have learned a lot about Physician Assisted Suicide. I find it most important that my sources of information were from both sides of the discussion. This made it helpful for me to understand both views on Physician Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia. Upon completing my research, I developed stronger feelings for the case of Physician Assisted Suicide as being a patient’s choice.This is an i ndividual’s choice, and for anyone to vote against such a procedure does not seem OK. Nobody has a say in what goes on in another person’s life. If this really is the case, then why should anyone be able to say that people who are suffering and nearing death cannot take a lethal dose of medication to kill themselves. It all comes down to Physician Assisted Suicide being a patient’s choice and right to have the opportunity in front of him or her if he or she deems it necessary. In conclusion, the ending of one’s life should be left in the hands of that one individual and nobody else.It will always be said to people that â€Å"it is your life, do with it as you will†, but why should this phrase change when it is applied to someone’s death? People should be free to determine their own fates by their own autonomous choices, especially when it comes to private matters such as health (Quill 39). No one person’s life should be at the mercy o f what other people believe would be best. Life or death and the way they will be carried out or ended, should be nobodies choice but the individual. Resources Ball, S. (2006).Nurse-patient advocacy and the right to die. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing, 44, 36-42. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database. Darr, K. (2007). Assistance in dying: part II. Assisted suicide in the united states. Nexus. Ethics, Law, and Management, 85, 31-36. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database. Death with dignity act. OREGON. gov. Retrieved February 15, 2008 from http://oregon. gov/DHS/ph/pas . DeSpelder, L. , Strickland, A. (2005). The last dance: Encountering death and dying.New York: McGraw-Hill. Dimond, B. (2006). Mental capacity requirements and a patient’s right to die. British Journal of Nursing, 15, 1130-1131. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database. Heintz, A. (2007). Quality of dyin g. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 28, 1-2. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database. Oliver, D. (2006). A perspective on euthanasia. British Journal of Cancer, 95, 953-954. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database.Quill, T. , Battin, M. (2004). Physician assisted dying: The case for palliative care and patient choice. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. Sanders, K. , Chaloner, C. (2007). Voluntary euthanasia: Ethical concepts and definitions. Art and Science Ethical Decision-Making, 21, 41-44. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from the MEDLINE (through EBSCOhost) database. Scherer, J. , Simon, R. (1999). Euthanasia and the right to die: A comparative view. United States of America: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Teacher Strike Contract Negotiation Education Essay

Negotiation is acquiring what you want for yourself, household, friend or the company you work for. It produces an understanding that consequences in a solution reached by all parties involved. The declarations reached by either party may be Trade-offs. The tradeoffs are grants that either party are will to waive to run into their dialogue ends. When fixing to negociate we analyze our place, strengths, failings, BATNA, bounds, and scopes of options. When finding your BATNA ( â€Å" Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement † ) lists your options, measure your option. Contract differences and dialogues between the instructors and board members from clip to clip may acquire intense, peculiarly in difficult fiscal times. The strain of problematic dialogues can impact each individual in the school construction, from the board members to the teaching staff, pupils and their defenders. This paper will dwell of why instructors go on work stoppage, how one prepares for dialogue, the five types of power, the scheme one my utilizing during dialogue, and the procedure of the dialogue.Teacher Strike Contract NegotiationCorporate bargaining and work stoppages in peculiar, can be peculiarly troublesome among the communities in which our pupils are from, impacting the results for the school board choice. Most province legislative acts do non name for schools to dicker on issues associating to the educational policy of the school board. Negotiations may fall short to take to a fulfilled understanding between a instructors ‘ brotherhood and a school board. Once good religion attempts fail to decide the dissensions between those involved, a lawful draw occurs. At the clip the draw occurs, active bargaining between the involved parties is typically suspended. If attempts for draw declaration are unsuccessful between the instructors ‘ brotherhood and a school territory, instructors may take to strike to act upon or oblige the board to run into the demands of the brotherhood. Someplace instructors do non hold the right to strike ; province legislative acts on a regular basis enforce pecuniary or comparable punishments on those who strike illicitly. States where work stoppages are allowed in the populace sector, instructors frequently must run into several usher lines prior to the work stoppage.Why Do Teachers travel on StrikeThere are a whole batch of grounds that could take to instructors traveling on work stoppage. Lack of wage is one of the chief grounds that instructors go on work stoppage. The limited resources or suspended plans associated with the production of the schoolroom can do instructors to strike. Puting more or restricting the responsibilities of a instructor, for illustration delegating instructors the responsibility of documenting and publishing suspensions that is the duty of the principal. Prospective alterations to the lesson program that instructors do non agree with may do a work stoppage every bit good. Additional work clip or a diminution in the readying clip is another issue. Modification in the linguistic communication of the contract that could bring forth an uncertainness environing excess duties that can be assigned is another concern. There are a batch of likely arguable concerns aside from wages that might ensue in a work stoppage by a instructors brotherhood. Some even go on work stoppage due to the fact that they do n't experience they were being treated reasonably for all they do. Traveling on work stoppage is non merely about money, it is about learning environment as a whole. Striking is a method to state the board that you are non traveling to be walked all over for all that you do. A batch of instructors do more than their portion of things after school. They provide assistance pupils on their personal clip. They use a batch of their ain money to buy their pupils equipment because the school wo n't supply the resources to them. They take on many excess undertakings that the decision maker has given them despite the heavy work load that they already have ; such as planning, rating, roll uping study cards, go toing meetings, etc. .Fixing for NegotiationWhile in readying for dialogues, you should ever cognize your opposition. In some state of affairss you have come into contact with your opposition in some type of signifier or manner so it has come clip to run into face to face. ( hypertext transfer protocol: ///www.associatedcontent.com/artical/462367/rookie year_baseball_contract_of_christy.html ) During the clip the opposing sides convene, a duologue must be exchanged. The exchange needs to typify the ideas, offers, information, and grants if demands are no reached while at the bargaining tabular array. We must bear in head that first feelings do do the difference. As a consequence, the most indispensable thing to see is that you must ever stand for yourself in a respectable mode. Body linguistic communication can state more than words. ( http: //www.businessetiquettearticles.com/Art/1628/25/Your-Body-Language-Speaks-Louder-Than-Words.html ) â€Å" Successful negotiating is one portion face-to-face treatment and nine parts prep. † ( www.vtvsba.org/streaming/basicnego/basicnego.html ) Collective bargaining entails making research that is detailed, sound, and attentive. Before the board or anyone else for that affair can get down the procedure of negociating, everyone must hold a clear sense of what outcome they are seeking to make and how they plan on obtaining their ends. When fixing for dialogues, board members must look at every facet of the state of affairs at manus. Although the board may hold consulted with other members of the territory, or even province or private attorneies, inquiries refering work stoppage can considerably alter the typical guidelines for fixing to negociate. The size of the school territory will act upon the sort and degree of readying a board must finish. In a smaller territory, deficiency of formality may be the norm, and the negotiants may be familiar with one another ; presently in bigger school territories, the more hard the dialogues and planning will turn out to be. The followers are some added factors that can assist the way of the board ‘s development actions: The sum of force per unit area that exists. The board will hold to modify its attack if instructors are peculiarly hawkish, if the territory ‘s fiscal place has changed markedly, or if a work stoppage deadline is hanging over the board. Your ain attitudes. If the board is convinced it ‘s non traveling to give an inch, or if it is locked into a certain position dictated by legal or fiscal considerations, planning must be adjusted to account for managing these restrictions. The current province of employee dealingss. If employee dealingss are amicable, the grade of planning may be altered by the simple fact that there will be less to negociate. Conversely, if the decision makers, the board, and the employees have been prosecuting in a war over policy issues, be aftering attempts will hold to include a scheme for maintaining those issues off the bargaining tabular array. Teacher dialogues, countenances, and work stoppages are really much a portion of the mundane operations of public schools.A Although there are huge fluctuations throughout the state in the passion of instructor combativeness, no school construction can acquire off from the duty of reacting to the turning influence in educational decision-making.AFive Types of PowerIn instances where dialogues will be used there are five good known schemes that can be referenced? These schemes include legitimate power, wages power, coercive power, adept power, and referent power. All of the five powers have supplied the negociating squads with a benefit, throughout the negotiating patterned advance.Legitimate PowerLegitimate power is derived from the accomplishment to carry because of place. Peoples at superior degrees have power over the people beneath them. On the other manus, each individual with legitimate power implements their ain personal manner. Legitimate power is utile to dialogues in a mixt ure of ways.Reward PowerReward power can be derived from the ability to honor conformity it used to endorse up legitimate power. Potential wagess such as acknowledgment, wage rise, or farther resources to finish a occupation are promised, one may counter by reacting petitions and waies.Coercive PowerCoercive power is the contrary of reward power. It is the capableness to take something off from the nonsubjective individual or to punish the object for non-cooperation with a petition. It is the power to coerce person to make something against their will.Expert PowerAdept power is that which is used by Trade Unions when they persuade their members to strike for better wage or working conditions. It deals with the capacity to act upon others by possessing cognition or accomplishments that they value.Referent PowerReferent power is seldom called personal power. It is the power of personal appeal and celebrity. Referent power occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise esteem the individual and is associated with magnetic leading. Additionally, there are two diverse signifiers of bargaining ; they are integrative bargaining and distributive bargaining. While faced with a dialogue, the people involved ought to be willing to happen the in-between land and utilize some of the schemes to assist with converting the other side. There are two instances that will demo how the five schemes and dickering guidelines were used to exemplify a encouraging decision in dialogues for all concerned in the procedure The negotiated understanding became the tool for school territories authorization on each status that is negotiated into the signed understanding. As a consequence, the understanding has possible deductions for all that occurs in the schoolrooms of that territory. Issues refering the transportation of instructor policies, guidelines for employee ratings, and all other contractual affairs covering with instructors all have an impact on the value of learning staff, which leads to the quality of instruction that our childs will have.Procedure in NegotiationThe development in the negotiating procedure is besides complicated to nail down since standard public communicating is non a portion of the process. The school community seldom has entree to information ; they have to wait on the school board releases the justification of how the projected declaration will impact the territory ‘s fundss. The public school environment is ever altering with new policies, engineerings and reforms. This presents a trial for each territory ‘s teacher brotherhood and school board partnership.Kenya Teacher StrikeIn an article about Kenya school instructors, more than 200,000 instructors went on work stoppage because of what they were being paid or lack thereof. The National Union of Teachers in Kenya reported that the standard wage for instructors in Kenya was $ 308 monthly, and well lower for new instructors ( Oyaro, 2009 ) . The instructors were over worked and underpaid and the schoolrooms were over crowded. There was besides a deficit of instructor due to the free tuition which besides affected the board from engaging new instructors. Because of issues such as theses the instructor decided to travel on work stoppage. The Education Minister is the dialogue maneuver of bullying ; he tried by endangering them with the loss of their places as instructors to acquire them back in the schoolrooms. This tactic did non work in this instance because the instructors knew the Minister was bluffing and could non fire them all one clip, so they called his bluff. The instructors stuck to their guns no affair what the effect was in hopes that one of their demand were met. The work stoppage lasted 10 yearss before an understanding was reached between the Kenya National Union of Teachers and the Education Minster. The understanding was achieved by utilizing integrative bargaining on behalf of the instructors. The curate agreed to increase the instructor ‘s wages ; but, it was to be done in stages and over clip. â€Å" The first wage rise of 40 % would get down in July, † he said, â€Å" with farther additions in 2010 and 2011. † In utilizing integrative bargaining, both sides leave the dialogue s satisfied ; the instructors will have the rises they demanded and the Education Minister will hold his instructors back in the schoolroom. Peoples occupied with unusual fortunes are faced with determinations that have to be made mundane. Because of the determinations made on a day-to-day footing we must trust on dialogue schemes. When we use the dialogue schemes, two key schemes come into drama ; enchantress would be the integrative and riotous bargaining. Integrative bargaining is two diverse people or parties in favour of a jointly favourable contract based on the parties ‘ benefit of coming to a win-win declaration. Disruptive bargaining is where the people involved reach a contract ensuing from the misgiving and incredulity by one party concluding in a win-lose solution.Kent Teacher StrikeTeachers have negotiated contracts which will non merely have an consequence on their ain lives every bit good as the schoolroom atmosphere. Teachers in Kent, Washington went on work stoppage when and contractual understanding could non be reached. The last straw that broke the camel ‘s dorsum was the overcrowding in th e schoolrooms fell from 29 to 26 ( Beckley, 2009 ) . The integrative bargaining scheme was used in the Kent schools survey. Although a figure of people have said that traveling on work stoppage simply hurts the community and those involved in the school system, others may challenge that this should hold been good for the pupils in the schoolroom. Because the instructors received a smaller schoolroom contract with the school territory the instructors should increase their clip spent with each pupil to travel over lessons or prep jobs. Even though the Washington school had to gestate to some of the commissariats of the instructors, the result was non taking the desperate terminals of the dialogue. This finally described Integrative bargaining. Integrative bargaining occurs when both sides reach an understanding where both parties benefit from the state of affairs and is a win-win solution.Negotiation SchemesThe dialogue attack pattern in this instance to keep the school board ‘s demand to re-look at the bounds while turn toing the issues of the stakeholders was the integrative dialogue attack which aims at aiming a win-win result for all involved in the dialogue. The word integrative translates to unite legion parts into one piece. Theoretically, this implies some coaction, or a connection of forces to achieve togetherness. Typically it employs a higher extent of assurance and the chance of a partnership. All involved may desire to walk off with a sense that they ‘ve accomplished something that has valu e by having what each wants. ( http: //www.negotiations.com/articles/negotiation-types/ ) â€Å" Integrative bargaining ( besides called â€Å" interest-based bargaining, † â€Å" win-win bargaining † ) ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.beyondintractability.org/essay/interest-based_bargaining/ ) is a dialogue attack that all involved work together to happen a â€Å" win-win † declaration to their difference of sentiment. The attack focuses on developing every bit good contracts based on the involvements of the other party involved. The Interests could incorporate the demands, wants, concerns, and uncertainties of import to the other. The above instance for the Kent, Washington school board can successfully utilize integrative bargaining to develop a most favourable result in the best involvements for all involved in the dialogue procedure. Measure one would be to sort the indispensable involvement of everyone involved, which would include the parents of the school every bit good. â€Å" The bottom line is that we need to calculate out why people feel the manner they do, why they are demanding and what they are demanding. † We besides must inquire ourselves how the other side interprets our demands. The possible effects of a contract must be analyzed, as if you were on the other squad looking at them for the first clip. After involvements are identified, the parties need to work together hand in glove to seek to calculate out the best ways to run into those involvements. Often by â€Å" brainstorming † — naming all the options anyone can believe of without knocking or disregarding anything ab initio, parties can come up with originative new thoughts for meeting involvements and demands that had non occurred to anyone earlier. The end is a win-win result, giving each side as much of their involvement s as possible, and plenty, at a lower limit that they see the result as a win, instead than a loss. † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.beyondintractability.org/essay/interest-based_bargaining/ ) As mentioned above in the inquiry that major concerns of the parents are related to quality of instruction, impact of such enlargement on belongings values, societal effects on kids due to such redrawing of limitations, increased travel clip and traversing cultural and economic boundaries. The school board can offer optimum solution in each of these countries to come out with a win-win state of affairs and convert the parents to accept the redrawing of boundaries. For illustration, sing the concern related to quality of instruction, the school governments can show facts that redrawing of boundaries will really better the quality of instruction by supplying much larger and improved substructure to pupils. Further, school can supply a program to parents that will convert parents that school has the capableness to supply highest quality of instruction even with larger figure of pupils. The school will necessitate to supply a concrete program to the parents with elaborate information about their schemes to keep quality with larger figure of pupils.DecisionNegotiation is an of import and valuable tool for deciding struggle when all parties involved have a shared committedness to making a collaborative, joint result that satisfies both parties demands and involvements. Cultural considerations play an of import function in the dialogue procedure as all of the histrions bring with them their ain specific cultural behaviours ; that is their forms of th ought, feeling, moving and most significantly, their ain set of culturally shared values. Many dialogue scenarios may affect work stoppages of some step. In the illustration of the Kent, WA instructors, the instructors were highlighted as having an understanding that was non a benefit merely to them. The benefit was besides extended out to the community and pupils to demo concern therefore finding an integrative bargaining scheme. Negotiation schemes are used by every individual and organisation on a day-to-day footing. While some may non recognize they are utilizing them, the schemes are being used in some form or signifier. I did take the advice of my teacher and equals. I watched my grammatical mistakes, added sub-topics to that the paper can hold a better flow for the readers. All in all I think this is a good paper.

Riddley Walker and Enders Game Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Riddley Walker and Enders Game - Essay Example Locke. A name that was so credential to the population of the United Kingdom in the latter half of the 1600's. Locke was a great man who did many things for his country. "Locke is remembered today largely as a politic philosopher. He preached the doctrine that man naturally possesses certain large rights, the chief being life, liberty, and property." (pg.278, History at an Estranged Glance, by McCracken Phil & Dover, Ben, Your Momma Books LTD., Kandahar, Afghanistan, 2001) Locke influenced not only the people of his time, but many political thinkers in the years to come. "The American Declaration of Independence, clearly reflects Locke's teachings." (pg.278, McCracken & Dover) As well as a political thinker, Locke was also a teacher, preacher, scientist, physician, and confidential secretary to many important people of that time-frame. All in all, a very important individual in history who presented many valid points. Peter Wiggins may only be a young boy, but inside his mind is a vastly complex series of thoughts and ideas, limited to few people on the earth. "There are maybe two or three thousand people in the world as smart as us, little sister. Most of them are making a living somewhere. Teaching, the poor bastards, or doing research. Precious few of them are actually in positions of power." (pg.129, Ender's Game, by Card, Orson S., Tom Doherty and Associates Inc., New York, N.Y., 1991) Peter is an extremely persuasive person, and this is a substantial characteristic of his, which comes to play when some of his valid points are discussed and debated over in the international forum. "Peter was a master of flattery, and all of his teachers bought it." (pg.124, Card) Another characteristic which helps Peter along the way is his outstanding self control. Peter doesn't let his emotions get involved in his forum writings, therefore, making it more credible to others on the net, that he is an adult, not a child. "Peter was not insane, not in the sense that he wasn't in control of himself. He was in better control of himself than anyone she (Valentine) knew. Peter could delay any desire as long as he needed to; he could conceal any emotion" (pg.125, Card) Peter is, in fact, a child genius. Demosthenes, was a Greek orator who was born in Athens in 384 BC. He was an extremely accomplished public speaker in his time, probably one of the best ever in his country of Greece. "Demosthenes was the greatest Athenian orator." (pg.701, McCracken & Dover) Demosthenes' brilliant and controversial speeches did many things good and bad. His declamations often consisted of harsh words towards Philip II of Macedon, and the Macedon people, who were at the time, invading Greece's gold mines, and blocking off their grain routes. Often in his addresses, he would try to persuade the people of Athens to make a stand against the Macedons. " Throughout the 340's, Demosthenes continued his efforts to persuade the Athenians to take a strong stand against the Macedons. He continued to stir up opposition to what he regarded as Macedonian infringement of Greek liberty" (pg.701, McCracken & Dover) Many of Demosthenes' clever speeches, such as the Philippics, have been preserved, and are still debate d over today by scholars, and modern day philosophers. Valentine Wiggins, although a young girl, has

The Presence of Family History and the Development of Type 2 Diabetes Research Paper

The Presence of Family History and the Development of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Risk Factors in Rural Children - Research Paper Example The existence of several risk factors in the samples reporting a positive family history of diabetes Vs those with no history on diabetes was not statistically significant (Richard, 2010). According to the results, other factors apart from family history can also influence the development of this kind of diabetes in rural school going children. Purpose, problem and statement and sampling of the study The study sought to find the effect of the selected risks and how they lead to the development of the type 2 DM in rural children. The problem and purpose of the study clearly states the association between the variables used in the study. The focused population of the study is the children from rural areas and the study clearly indicates that on the problem statement. The objectives of the author were obtainable due to the inclusion of adequate information that will help achieve the purpose and hence will aid the solutions to the problem (Ogundipe, 2005). Hypothesis The study used both the combination of the null and research hypothesis. The prevalence of diabetes is related to genetic factors among the rural children There is a relationship between rural children type diabetes and family history Type 2 diabetes is prevalent among children from rural areas The study does not stop there or rather utilizes, for efficiency, the directional hypothesis. The hypotheses are having a strong base from the purpose of the study and their statements are clear and focused in the study. The hypotheses are appropriately tested using the t-statistics. Variables Independent Variable Type 2 DM Dependent Variable The family history. From the results 13.7 percent of 1255 participants recorded BMI which was greater than 27. And among the 13 percent, 46.5% reported a history of DM on their family. The independent variable is family history while the dependent variable Type 2 DM. these variables are consistent with the hypothesis, purpose and the questions of the study. However, these v ariables lack adequate conceptual and operational definition. Data collection methods The method of data collection employed was qualitative and qualitative techniques. For instance, open ended questionnaires were used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Data collection instruments The study utilizes appropriate data collection methods and instruments by applying the use of the questionnaires to collect data. Data Analysis The samples were subjected to BMI and the results analyzed statistically. These instruments represent the validity of the results hence the general validity of the study. However, I suppose more data collection and instruments such as in self-reports, medical records and observation and also the sample size would have been increased so as to increase the representation of the target of the population. Methodologies The study uses a more advanced correlation research design. The study aims at screening about 4000 rural nursery school kids through 12t h grade children from families who has history of DM children from families with no history in DM, and then determines the frequency of preferred risk factors. Screen is a good method for this kind of analysis; however, a better analysis such as Body Mass Index has

Free or Abandon, the emergence of black ghetto Essay

Free or Abandon, the emergence of black ghetto - Essay Example Scope of the Author The author has broader and clear perception regarding the black community. He indicates that out of the forty-four existing settlers in Los Angeles, twenty-six were of African ancestry (Graaf 325). However, this number decreased rapidly following a census carried out in 1970. The results of the census disclosed that there were only twenty-two mulattoes out of a population of 150 individuals; however, a handful of Afro-Americans came to the city during the Spanish and Mexican era. Furthermore, the Afro-American element vanished virtually, although some present reports reveal that numerous famous landowners and political figures of California have African ancestry. Graaf continues to reveal that the first decades of American governance saw the influx of numerous families, particularly the family of Biddie Mason, into Los Angeles (Graaf 326). The Afro-American population grew from 12 to 102 families within the period of years between 1850 and 1880, which only transla tes into one percent of the general population of the state of California. Additionally, the land boom of 1888 led to the increase of the Afro-American population up to 1258 people. This translated into three percent of the general population of the state (Graaf 327). The land boom caused the increase of unemployment rate that stretched all over the state of California. ... Considering all the aforementioned factors Graaf argues that it is difficult to obtain any evidence that before 1900 there were any particular economical or other driving forces for African Americans to create ghetto-like urban areas within the black community. The employment setting of Afro-Americans contained signs of prejudice and starvation. Unemployment rate hit them hard and in 1893 they formed a body to guarantee jobs and land because the existing unions rejected their appeal for jobs. However, unemployment was not distinctive among the Afro-Americans and numerous factors lessened the aftermath of the Depression. However, Los Angeles felt the intensity of the panic in 1897. The majority of the Afro-Americans soon acquired service jobs and the inflow of whites generated a market for more jobs. Moreover, the depression neither discouraged the influx of other Afro-Americans into the city nor restricted the African Americans from expanding their businesses. Graaf also reveals that the racial hostility towards Afro-Americans declined abruptly. Los Angeles had desegregated its institutions and the state had incorporated a civil rights rule. Therefore, the Afro-American population enjoyed a spell of declining racial tension and a substantial degree of recognition. The number of Afro-Americans migrating to the state augmented abundantly between 1900 and 1920. This led to a multiplication of the Afro-American population with several migrants arriving from the Southern States. There were also intense efforts to increase the Afro-American population, such as Mass importation. Reports reveal that that the Pacific railroad conveyed almost 2000 Afro-Americans with an intention to end a

Rise of fascism and communism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rise of fascism and communism - Essay Example In many different ways, fascism and communism possessed quite a number of contradicting principles, but at long last they became authoritative political frameworks that were controlled by one person in charge (Merriman, 2010, Pg. 56). Communism was concerned with ensuring that there is equality in the economy, fascism is concerned with the magnificence of the nation and the power that depicted through conquest and violent behavior. Both political systems begun from Europe and gradually but steadily became popular during the early times of the 20th century. The countries that witnessed fascism were: Italy during the reign of Mussolini, Germany under the leadership of Hitler, Hungary between the years 1944 – 1945, Spain under the leadership of Franco and Romania between the year 1940 -1941 under the leadership of the Iron Guard. The start of this century witnessed a different form of the political environment in the nations of the West. The past century, the 19th century, had wi tnessed the industrial uprising substitute farming. This change was accompanied by dynamic changes in political, social, and shifts in the demography. People who were concentrated in rural areas seriously busy with agriculture whereby they grew crops and reared animals changed their lifestyles and migrated to urban centers and towns. In the urban centers, they got employment in the industries and factories. The industrial movement generated a lot of capital and consequently propagated cultural alienation and divisions among community members in regard to wealth. Some of the revolutions aiming at better living standards and improved working environments were witnessed in many countries. Many of these revolutions were initiated by leaders who pursued deep-seated visions on what the community should be (Merriman, John M, 2010, Pg. 45). In the year 1930, when fascism and communism arose in the Western countries, and the spreading out of the empires of Italy and Germany and the extension of the empire of Japan in Asia show the United States of America shift from isolationism policy to support local partners and protect democracy. The United States of America openly got involved in World War 2 immediately after Japan attacked the harbor of Pearl. The fascism of Europe, which started when Germany turned to Hitler who was an extremist, turned to be more powerful in the 1930s under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Mussolini had the capability and ability to unite the country with a vision of gaining their territories they had lost. Communism had commenced rising during the time of Joseph Stalin when he succeeded the Soviet Communist. In the year 1939, under the governance of Joseph Stalin, the union of Soviet and Germany signed a deal of aggression. From this time, Germany did not fear of fighting. Communism and fascism were portrayed as a system of governance that was posing threats to democracy. Later on, Italy, Germany collaborated with Japan to form an alliance (Merriman, 2010, Pg. 63). Their empire was greatly expanded by the year 1941. Germany had attacked Poland and the same time Italy conquered Sudan, Egypt and the entire North of Africa. Japan succeeded in her conquest and expanded its territory into China. This revolution did not only create threats to democracy but also countries like Holland, United States of America, France and Britain were also threatened. At this particular point, the involvement of the United States

Korean-American adolescents' academic success Article

Korean-American adolescents' academic success - Article Example entional cultural values and beliefs have been preserved by the originating migrants, their children have completely adapted and adjusted to Western culture. It is interesting to delve into finding out the factors which contribute to the academic performance of migrants’ children, specifically Korean Americans. Adolescents from today’s generation have grown with relatively antithetical thinking and preferences compared to generations that their grandparents and parents were accustomed to. Likewise, academic performance, attitudes and behaviors of previous generations were influenced by traditional and conventional norms. The methods of teaching as well as the instructional materials available during those times provide limited or more constrained opportunities for access of a broader knowledge base. The impact of advances in technology in the past decades has drastically altered the values, views and preferences of adolescents including their study habits and academic performances. The objectives of this research are threefold: (1) to present the academic achievement of Korean-American adolescents in schools in the US; (2) to identify which factors contribute to academic success of Korean-American adolescents; and (3) to determine the effect of family and culture in the academic achievement of Korean-American adolescents in US schools. Ethnic Identity as a Predictor of Problem Behaviors among Korean American Adolescents, a Journal article by Eunai K. Shrake, Siyon Rhee; Adolescence, Vol. 39, 2004 presents the underlying problems that Korean American adolescent’s experience. Chung, Jungsook Park. 1998. "A Study of Self-Esteem in Selected Korean-American Youth in the Fort Worth-Dallas Area." Ph.D. Thesis, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary aims to discover certain significant predictors of self-esteem among Korean-American adolescents and to determine the difference in self-esteem scores across the variables of gender, length of residence in the

A topic of interest in business or management Research Proposal

A topic of interest in business or management - Research Proposal Example Further, although business management courses have included various course modules on entrepreneurship that focus on strategies that would assist in establishing new businesses or determining factors and traits of successful entrepreneurs, information on the effect of economic crisis to entrepreneurship is not vagrantly published. One is intrigued to find out whether the economic crisis detracts potentially talented entrepreneurs from establishing new business endeavors or led successfully established businesses into financial loss and bankruptcy. The statistics that could be searched could provide the theoretical framework for the research. However, interpretation of the statistics and numbers of new or closed businesses during the period of economic crisis could assist aspiring entrepreneurs in learning from the experiences of others. The research objective could be stated as: The research aims to determine how the economic crisis affect and impact entrepreneurship in the United States. The objective could be achieved through addressing the following research questions: A description and qualitative research method would be proposed for the current research. Secondary sources of authoritative and academic information would provide support to contentions and would validate results, as required. From current statistics, relevant findings would be interpreted and would form the basis for recommendations and conclusions. Gries, T. and Naude, W. 2011. â€Å"Entrepreneurship, Structural Change and a Global Economic Crisis.† Entrepreneurship Research Journal, Volume 1, Issue: 3, Pages: article 4. [Online]. Available at: http://www.mendeley.com/research/entrepreneurship-structural-change-global-economic-crisis/. [Accessed 7 January 2012]. Knowledge@Wharton. 2008. Why an Economic Crisis Could Be the Right Time for Companies to

George Washington Plunkitt Essay Example for Free

George Washington Plunkitt Essay In the late 19th century, battle lines of distaste and resentment were drawn between the new immigrant class and the current American citizens. In New York City, the Nativists and the Irish Catholic community clashed on opposing sides of the line. The majority of Irish Catholic immigrants were uneducated, unskilled, and alien to the industrial city life of the new world. Their mass numbers filled up the city’s slums, poor houses, and prisons. With strong aversion from New York Nativists, the Irish immigrant community was initially obstructed from attaining governmental support. This void in representation of such a massive percentage of New York’s population allowed for the emergence and great success of Tammany Hall leaders like George Washington Plunkitt. George Washington Plunkitt, born in 1842, grew up surrounded by this new immigrant Irish-Catholic community. He identified with the city’s immigrant poor and working class; the resented New York Irish were Plunkitt’s community. Although Plunkitt used his political status for his own benefit, his position as a political leader was useful for his community. Plunkitt’s nepotistic beliefs, while controversial, proved to benefit his community. He had a strong belief in the spoils system and stood for â€Å"rewarding the men that won the victory† (12). He could not foresee the existence of a party system that did not place its own workers in offices (13). He candidly discussed the impossibilities of â€Å"[keeping] an organization together without patronage† (36). In response to an accusation of Tammany Hall’s patronage, Plunkitt expressed his belief that there is no one more in need, better fit, or more anxious to serve the city than Tammany workers (51). Although this outlook gave Plunkitt a controversial ‘quid pro quo’ attitude towards government affairs, his community benefitted from this arrangement. This arrangement allowed Plunkitt to provide jobs to his supporters who might have otherwise suffered unemployment. A majority of Plunkitt’s supporters were uneducated and unskilled migrants who were generally feared and disapproved of. Plunkitt meanwhile knew â€Å"every big employer in [his] district and in the whole city† and made a point to keep track of the jobs (27). These connections enabled Plunkitt to provide jobs for the men he considered ‘deservin’ † (27). To him, a deserving man is any man with a vote for Tammany Hall. Not only did Plunkitt provide jobs to his constituents but he also provided rudimentary support and a form of insurance for the poorer families in his district. If a family in his district was in need, he was able to â€Å"fix them up† until they were on their own feet again (27). He proclaimed â€Å"no Tammany man goes hungry in my district† (36). Plunkitt made it unmistakably clear though, that while it was a philanthropy he was offering, it was only in the name of politics. For example, after describing the support he offered to families burdened by the devastation of a fire, he selfishly asked himself how many votes one fire could bring him (37). Although Plunkitt was never without a self-interest motive, he was in a unique position having the ability to be a provider for families in need. At the time, there was no government welfare system established. Instead, the poor and those in need could rely on the welfare offered by Plunkitt; his community benefitted from his ability to take care of them. Plunkitt’s own benefits from government are obscured and, in some way, vindicated because of the support he provided for his community. Plunkitt made a fortune in politics but in return succeeded in getting big improvements for New York City (28). If Plunkitt had not made his pile in politics, the social net he controlled would have collapsed. The community would have been worse off if he had not reaped the benefits from government and used his own funds to provide assistance to the poor. Plunkitt was in no way a philanthropist but in becoming a nepotistic and selfish government official who used politics for his own advantage, he became useful to his community. Plunkitt saw a vote in everyone, no matter his or her status. He had the ability to â€Å"be several sorts of a man in a single day† (45). He could â€Å"talk grammar† with the wealthy but also connect with the common people of his district (45). He kept is constituents close and would â€Å"do them a good turn whenever he [had] a chance† (46). Plunkitt’s adaptable personality and mercantile approach towards politics made him valuable to his community. With his status and fortune, he supported his community and provided government representation for the new Irish immigrant class. He was a provider of jobs and a provider of welfare in return for a vote.

Reversible Data Hiding on Color Images

Reversible Data Hiding on Color Images REVERSIBLE DATA HIDING ON COLOR IMAGES USING DIFFERENCE HISTOGRAM MODIFICATION Subash David A   Abstract: Data embedding is done by processing these selected coefficients of the modified subband histograms. We present a high capacity reversible watermarking scheme using the technique of difference average value coefficients of image blocks by using the tool Matlab. This scheme takes advantage of difference average value coefficients, which permits low distortion between the watermarked image and the original one caused by the LSB bit replacement operations of the watermarking technique specifically in the embedding process. By the proposed approach, compared with the conventional one-dimensional difference-histogram and one-dimensional prediction-error-histogram-based RDH methods [3] [20], the image redundancy can be better exploited and an improved embedding performance is achieved. Keywords: DPM, Histogram, LSB, Matlab, RDH, Watermarking, I.INTRODUCTION For most image data hiding methods [1], the host image is permanently distorted and it cannot be restored from the marked content. But in some applications such as medical image sharing multimedia archive management and image trans-coding any distortion due to data embedding is intolerable and the availability of the original image is in high demand. To this end, a solution called â€Å"reversible data hiding† (RDH) is proposed, in which the host image can be fully restored after data embedding. RDH is a hybrid method which combines various techniques to ensure the reversibility. Its feasibility is mainly due to the lossless compressibility of natural images. Many RDH methods [10] have been proposed in recent years, e.g., the methods based on lossless compression, difference expansion (DE), histogram shifting (HS), and integer transform [5], etc. Many researchers’ algorithm plays as an important work of RDH. In DE algorithm, the host image is divided into pixel pairs, and the difference value of two pixels in a pair is expanded to carry one data bit. All these methods aim at increasing the embedding capacity (EC) as high as possible while keeping the distortion low. This method can provide an embedding rate (ER) up to 0.5 bits per pixel (BPP) and it outperforms the previous compression based works. For the proposed method, by considering a pixel-pair and its context, a local image region is projected to a two-dimensional space to obtain a sequence of images that consisting of difference pixel variant pairs. Then, a two-dimensional difference histogram is then generated by counting the difference-pairs. Here, the DPM is an injective mapping defined on difference-pairs, and it is a natural extension of expansion embedding and shifting techniques used in current histogram-based methods. Finally, reversible data embedding is implemented according to a specifically designed difference-pair-mapping (DPM). By using the two-dimensional difference-histogram and this specific DPM, compared with the conventional one-dimensional histogram based methods, more pixels are used for carrying data while the number of shifted pixels is reduced as well, and thus an improved embedding performance is thus achieved. A new reversible authentication technique for images embeds a significant amount of data while keeping high visual quality. In order to verify the integrity of the image, we use a cryptographic hash function. The hash code is combined with a binary logo image by a bit-wise exclusive LSB replacement [9] or as well as difference pixel pair matching based on histogram matching technique in the difference image from the original image. On the other hand, a half the number of pixels of the image are added or subtracted by 1. Thus, the classification of pixels and also the terminal classification of the zeroth pixel and the last pixel are compared and shown together. II.PROPOSED WORK 2.1. Reversible Data Hiding The reversible data hiding [1] [7] in encrypted image is investigated. Most of the work on reversible data hiding focuses on the data embedding/extracting [20] on the plain spatial domain. But, in some applications, an inferior assistant or a channel administrator hopes to append some additional message, such as the origin information, image notation or authentication data, within the encrypted image though he does not know the original image content. And it is also hopeful that the original content should be recovered without any error after image decryption and message extraction at receiver side. This presents a practical scheme satisfying the above-mentioned requirements. A content owner encrypts the original image using an encryption key, and a data-hider can embed additional data into the encrypted image using a data-hiding key though he does not know the original content. Most of the existing watermarking algorithms are lossy. Permanent distortion is introduced into the host image during the embedding process and results in Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) loss. In some applications such as legal, military and medical imaging, permanent loss of signal fidelity is not allowed. This highlights the necessity of lossless/reversible data hiding which can recover the original host signal perfectly after the watermark extraction. However, the payload of the reversible watermarking is typically lower than that of lossy watermarking algorithms. With an encrypted image containing additional data, a receiver may first decrypt it according to the encryption key, and then extract the embedded data and recover the original image according to the data-hiding key. In the scheme, the data extraction is not separable from the content decryption. In other words, the additional data must be extracted from the decrypted image, so that the principal content of original image is revealed before data extraction, and, if someone has the data-hiding key but not the encryption key, he cannot extract any information from the encrypted image containing additional data. In applications that image downsizing is required; the embedded information is extracted from the received image using lossless data hiding extraction method before the transcoding process. A â€Å"thin edge† location map is formed as side information for the image enhancement process. During image resizing, we divide the image into N x N blocks (for simplicity, assume N is a positive integer larger in value. To share medical images with some concomitant data, one approach involves adding, when allowed by the image file format, some extra header information. Unfortunately, header files are prone to manipulation and information loss may occur during file format conversion. Most data contained in the header of a Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM). fig 1: Input Original Image In the presented experimental results, the algorithm is applied to each color component of three 512 Ãâ€" 512 RGB images, for all images such as Baboon, Lena, and Fruits setting T1 = T2 = T3 in all experiments. The embedding capacity depends on the nature of the image itself. In this case, the images with a lot of low frequencies contents produce more expandable triplets with lower distortion than high frequency images such as Baboon. In particular with Fruits, the algorithm is able to embed some amount of bits with a PSNR rate in dB, but with only reduced bits image quality increases at some amount of PSNR value in dB. Location Mapping: The number of subgroup points, depth of wavelet transforms and overflow/underflow book-keeping data are the necessary side information that should be embedded into the high frequency transformation coefficients besides the hidden data. Below mentioned figure shows the embedding image retrieving process. In the first block the integer wavelet transform is applied on the original image. Then the coefficients of high frequency subbands are used for constructing the subgroups. fig 2: Location Mapping Then the data and side information is hidden. The stego image carrying hidden data will be obtained after inverse integer wavelet transform. In image recovery system, the integer wavelet transform is applied on the stego image. Then by using the side information level of wavelet applying and the points of high frequency sub bands are used to construct the subgroups. In this step the data is retrieved. Then each subband histogram is inverse modified according to its subgroup points. Embedding the normal image by considering the pixel values achieved the concept of data hiding, secret data communication, etc. We need an image, an audio; a text file, a web source to be hidden or these sources can also be used to hide a particular data or any types of files. Data hiding, secret data communication, encrypting the data plays an important role in making telemedicine applications, secrecy in defense communication, etc. Each subband histogram is modified according to its subgroup coefficients. Now the subbands are ready for data embedding. The data embedding stage hides the data by subband coefficient processing. This type of flow is called reversible data hiding. The reverse process can take the same flow of getting the image as input and doing some of watermarking procedure to hide the secret data. fig 3: Image in which the secret data is kept hidden Hiding Retrieving back the Hidden Web Source: Each and every data (any data can be hidden for instance image, audio, text file, web source, etc.) Here we have done with some updations in making the data hiding process with the new algorithm of histogram and data hiding which is used for hiding a web source and retrieving it back. These use the algorithm of reversible data hiding and that the web source link will be saved in a particular place and it can be hidden in an image. Then after that the process of decrypting the watermarked image will be carried out. Herewith below shown are the retrieved image and the web source. fig 4: Extracted Original Image A sorting technique is used in this method to record prediction-errors based on the magnitude of local variance, and a pixel will be prior embedded if it has a small local variance. This method performs well and it is superior to some typical RDH schemes. fig 5: Retrieved web link source from the Watermarked image Now the inverse formula of data embedding is applied. After that inverse integer wavelet transform is applied to obtain the image. Now the side information tells us that the Overflow/Underflow post processing is required or not. The original image is obtained after this step. In the histogram modification process, the watermark is embedded into the modified difference image. The modified difference image is scanned. Once a pixel with the difference value of -1 or 1 is encountered, we check the watermark to be embedded. III.CONCLUSION DISCUSSION: This work is an attempt to employ higher dimensional histogram as a hierarchical watermarking process along the pair mapping histogram level. Compared with the previously introduced one-dimensional histogram based methods, our technique exploits the image repetition as far as good and it achieves an improved performance. Since only one pixel of a pixel-pair is allowed to be modified by 1 in value. This issue should be investigated in the future. Moreover, utilizing more suitable two-dimensional histogram and designing more meaningful Difference Pair Mapping (in arrangement of pixels) to achieve the best embedding performance is also a valuable problem. If the bit to be embedded is 1, we move the difference value of -1 to -2 by subtracting one from the odd-line pixel or 1 to 2 by adding one to the odd-line pixel. This correlation makes the pair easier to satisfy smaller thresholds and, hence, to produce a large portion of selected expandable pairs. The major drawback of reversible data hiding algorithm, is the size of the binary map. IV.REFERENCES: [1] Y. Q. Shi, â€Å"Reversible data hiding,† in Proc. IWDW, 2004, vol. 3304, pp. 1–12, ser. Springer LNCS. [2] Y. Q. Shi, Z. Ni, D. Zou, C. Liang, and G. Xuan, â€Å"Lossless data hiding: fundamentals, algorithms and applications,† in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, 2004, vol. 2, pp. 33–36. [3] G. Coatrieux, C. L. Guillou, J. M. Cauvin, and C. Roux, â€Å"Reversible watermarking for knowledge digest embedding and reliability control in medical images,† IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 158–165, Mar. 2009. [4] M. Fontani, A. D. Rosa, R. Caldelli, F. Filippini, A. Piva, and M. Consalvo, â€Å"Reversible watermarking for image integrity verification in hierarchical pacs,† in Proc. 12th ACM Workshop on Multimedia and Security, 2010, pp. 161–168. [5] S. Lee, C. D. Yoo, and T. Kalker, â€Å"Reversible image watermarking based on integer-to-integer wavelet transform,† IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Security, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 321–330, Sep. 2007. [6] R. Li, O. C. Au, C. K. M. Yuk, S. Yip, and T. Chan, â€Å"Enhanced image trans-coding using reversible data hiding,† in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, 2007, pp. 1273–1276. [7] K.-L. Chung, Y.-H. Huang, P.-C. Chang, and H.-Y. Liao, â€Å"Reversible data hiding-based approach for intra-frame error concealment in H.264/AVC,† IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., vol. 20, no. 11, pp. 1643–1647, Nov. 2010. [8] J. Fridrich, M. Goljan, and R. Du, â€Å"Lossless data embedding—new paradigm in digital watermarking,† EURASIP J. Appl. Signal Process., vol. 2002, no. 2, pp. 185–196, Feb. 2002. [9] M. U. Celik, G. Sharma, A. M. Tekalp, and E. Saber, â€Å"Lossless generalized- LSB data embedding,† IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 253–266, Feb. 2005. [10] J. Tian, â€Å"Reversible data embedding using a difference expansion,† IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 890–896, Aug. 2003. [11] A. M. Alattar, â€Å"Reversible watermark using the difference expansion of a generalized integer transform,† IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1147–1156, Aug. 2004. [12] W. L. Tai, C. M. Yeh, and C. C. Chang, â€Å"Reversible data hiding based on histogram modification of pixel differences,† IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 906–910, Jun. 2009. [13] Z.Ni, Y.Q. Shi, N. Ansari, andW. Su, â€Å"Reversible data hiding,† IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 354–362, Mar. 2006. [14] S. K. Lee, Y. H. Suh, and Y. S. Ho, â€Å"Reversible image authentication based on watermarking,† in Proc. IEEE ICME, 2006, pp. 1321–1324. [18] M. Fallahpour, â€Å"Reversible image data hiding based on gradient adjusted prediction,† IEICE Electron. Express, vol. 5, no. 20, pp. 870–876, Oct. 2008. [19] W. Hong, T. S. Chen, and C. W. Shiu, â€Å"Reversible data hiding for high quality images using modification of prediction errors,† J. Syst. Software, vol. 82, no. 11, pp. 1833–1842, Nov. 2009. [20] D. M. Thodi and J. J. Rodriguez, â€Å"Expansion embedding techniques for reversible watermarking,† IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 721–730, Mar. 2007.

Developing Communicative Competence In Foreign Language Students English Language Essay

Developing Communicative Competence In Foreign Language Students English Language Essay Corbett states that it has been commonly recognised in the language teaching profession that it is not enough for students to master grammar, lexis and phonology of a foreign language; they must also acquire the ability to use the language culturally and socially in appropriate ways. According to Michael (1997), learning about foreign cultures cannot nowadays be realistically separated from , therefore it is very important that foreign language learners become aware of both their own culture and that of others. Michael (1997) adds that recent publications introduced the communicative approach as a method of teaching, and hail it as the most widely accepted instructional framework in foreign language teaching, the ultimate goal of which must be to increase students communicative competence. Communicative competence means being able to use a linguistic system appropriately and effectively in the target language and culture. Recent publications emphasise the significance of the intercul tural dimension in language teaching because it helps language learners to communicate or interact with people of other languages and to be aware of their own identities and those of their interlocutors. According to Fred (1996), language learners who become intercultural speakers will be successful in communicating information and also in developing human relationships with individuals of other cultures and languages. Thus, this essay aims to demonstrate that concept of intercultural communicative competence can improve teachers classroom practices and that students can acquire communicative competence whilst being taught the four basic language skills. According to Rus (2003), developing intercultural communication in language teaching means identifying the following aims: firstly, to give students intercultural competence and linguistic competence; secondly, to prepare them for interaction with speakers of other cultures; thirdly, to enable them to accept and understand individuals from other societies as individuals with other distinctive values, behaviours and perspectives; and finally, to help them view such interaction in a positive light. This essay will first present a literature review, which offers definitions of intercultural communication and the importance of studying it in language teaching, communicative competence and intercultural communicative competence. It will then show how foreign students can improve their intercultural competence through learning the four basic skills. It will then conclude its findings. 2. Literature review 2.1 Intercultural communication and its importance in language teaching William (2003:132) defines intercultural communication as the exchange of cultural information between two groups of people with significantly different cultures. Jandt (1998: 36) also defines intercultural communication as face to face interactions amongst individuals of different cultures. Maletzke (1976:39) is a little more specific in his definition of intercultural communication when he describes it as a process of the exchange of meaning and thoughts between individuals of diverse cultures. Brislin (1986) pointed out that the increasing globalization and growth in international trade during the 21st century have made intercultural interaction with other languages and cultures inevitable and necessary (do you mean 20th century? Writing in 1986 means he only has experience of 20th century!). Michael (1997) found that most countries in the world are in contact, cooperate and exchange information with other countries more frequently than ever before. Nevertheless, difficulties do a rise once more in-depth intercultural interactions start to occur. Individuals from one country will naturally be accustomed to doing things in certain ways; this is inevitable. However, customs and behavioural patterns deemed appropriate in one country may be highly inappropriate in other countries. For instance, in several Asian countries, if a guest is invited for a meal to another familys house and he / she leaves immediately after the everyone has finished eating, the host might think that not enough food was served. If a guest were however to leave immediately the meal has ended in many American countries, this would be considered very rude behaviour and the host would think the guest has only come for the food and not the company (Brislin, 1990: 6) (both of your stories are similar in that the host is left thinking negative thoughts about the guest, it doesnt illustrate your point very well). Some countries have strict codes of public conduct and foreigners may inadvertently cause offence through their ignorance. Difficulties are therefore likely to occur during the interactions between individuals from two diverse societies, particularly when neither has an awareness of the others society. In order to make the interactions more effective and easier, intercultural communication should be studied in language teaching. As Rohrlich (1987) points out, intercultural communication studies helps people to understand not only the world in which they are living but also themselves. Moreover, it plays an essential function in many areas of the community, such as government, education and business. (this is a bit woolly) Communicative competence and intercultural communicative competence Foreign language teaching had language competence as its main goal before the appearance of the communicative language teaching approach. Methods like the audio-lingual method concentrated on the language competence of the learners. Hymes (1972) criticized the concept of Chomskys language competence and he put communicative competence ahead of it. This had a powerful effect on foreign language teaching and became one of the crucial theories of the Communicative Approach that was fashionable in the 1970s and 1980s. Bennett Allen (2003:244) state that foreign language students need the ability to relate appropriately and effectively in a variety of cultural contexts. Thus, the purpose of foreign language teaching is not merely help students to acquire language competence as well as communicative competence; it should be promoting intercultural competence ahead of language and communication, which could be considered less important elements of a culture. (I think much of what youve written in this next paragraph has been taken from various sources, some of the English is quite complicated and does not always make sense out of context. I would suggest you try and put some of it into direct quotes and give the sources) Pinto (2002) states that in a foreign language teaching context, intercultural competence is directly related to communicative competence in that intercultural competence builds on communicative competence and broadens it to incorporate intercultural competence. Communicative competence refers to the ability and skills of an individual to act appropriately in a foreign language environment, i.e. in a pragmatically, linguistically and sociolinguistically way. Byram (2000) explains that an individual with several degrees of intercultural competence (explain please) is able to see the relationships between diverse cultures, both external and internal, and is capable to mediate each in terms of the other, either for themselv es or for others. He has an analytical or critical understanding of (parts of) his own and other cultures, and he is conscious of his own perspective and of the way his thinking is culturally decided. Sercu (2005) suggests that for an individual to be able to successfully deal with different intercultural experiences, he / she needs a variety of recognizable intercultural competences such as the willingness to get involved with a foreign society, a strong self-awareness, the ability to view oneself objectively, the ability to see the world through the eyes of others and to cope with uncertainty, to act as a cultural mediator, to evaluate others viewpoints, to consciously use the skills of culture learning to read the cultural context, and the understanding that people cannot be reduced to their collective identities. Sercu goes on to classify different elements of intercultural competence under three main headings: behaviour / skills, knowledge and traits / attitudes. To interact ef fectively, speakers with intercultural competence should have culture specific and culture general knowledge, knowledge of the self and others, and an insight into ways in which culture can influence language and communication. Certain skills are also required of effective communicators and these include the abilities to relate and interpret, to interact and discover, to operate and acquire a new knowledge, skills and attitudes under the restrictions (constraints) of real-time interaction and communication and metacognitive strategies to guide (direct) own learning youve lost me here! The third element concentrates on traits or attitudes common to successful communicators. These include a predeliction towards learning intercultural competence, the inclination to to relativise oneself and value othersand a favourable disposition towards engaging with a foreign society. Text missing here words believes that intercultural competence requires culturally sensitive knowledge, a skill set and a motivated mindset. Also, Bennett ( 2003: 237) stresses that intercultural competence refers to the general ability to transcend ethnocentrism, appreciate other cultures and generate appropriate behaviour in one or more different cultures. Developing intercultural communicative competence through the four basic language skills Students learning English typically engage with a number of activities that encourage their use of the four main language skills: speaking, listening, writing and reading. These skills aim to develop their communicative competence, but can also encourage their cross-cultural awareness and understanding. Listening activities Pinto (2002) suggests a variety of listening activities: tape-recorded interviews with native speakers; video-taped cultural conversations; video- or audio-taped cultural misunderstandings, all of which encourage listening skills but with a particular focus on intercultural competence. Tape-recorded interviews with native speakers White (2006) states that this activity is a particularly useful activity for practising intercultural competence. Teachers divide students into groups and ask them to record an informal interview with a native speaker they know. Students should select a cultural topic and prepare some questions for the interview on that topic (an example would be good!). In the class, the interviews are re-played and students compare the interviewees opinion on the particular topic with their own opinion. These spontaneously recorded conversations present two advantages. Firstly, they give students the opportunity to listen to naturally, unrehearsed spoken language while they listen to the answers of the native speaker, something that is difficult to find in scripted classroom material. Secondly, in hearing themselves posing the questions on the tape, they are made aware of any pronunciation, intonation, vocabulary and grammar problems they might have. A teacher might also use other recorded material such as jokes, anecdotes, or songs from films in the target culture to help students feel closer to the target culture and to give them examples of how to communicate more naturally. Video-taped cultural conversations The students watch a video sketch where two persons of diverse cultures are discussing topics about the culture on which the project is based. One of them is from the target culture while the other is from students own culture. The instructor plans pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening questions to stimulate the students inter-cultural awareness and promote their listening skills. For instance, learners could ask some questions in a pre-listening stage to predict the views of the two people on the topic in question. During the listening process, the teacher could ask students to reject, refine or confirm the predictions made earlier. At the post-listening stage, the teacher could ask learners to give a critique of the opinion of the person from the target culture. After the discussion on the content is complete, students could spend some time discussing the different ways in which the two actors interacted: differences in their intonation, the use of pauses or periods of silence and non-verbal communication elements such as facial expressions, eye contact, body movements and so on. Video or audio-taped intercultural misunderstanding According to Lynch and Mendelsohn (2002), this kind of activity is useful in honing students awareness of cultural diversities. Students could be asked to listen to / and or watch a situation, which demonstrates an intercultural misunderstanding in a real-life situation where individuals are offended or confused. The students then pair up or work in small groups in order to explain or clarify the misunderstanding, thus increasing their intercultural awareness. (this is a bit woolly, an example would help explain it better) Speaking activities Michael (1997) describes several activities that could be designed by a teacher for students to assist in developing speaking skills with a special focus on intercultural components. These include face-to-face tandem learning, thinking up questions for a native speaker and role-playing. 1. Face-to-face tandem learning, or collaborative oral learning between speakers of different languages, is an activity especially appropriate to developing the intercultural communicative competence of foreign learners according to Fred (2002). A great example of tandem learning is the Erasmus plan that involves learner exchanges between the European Union countries. Students in one country are partnered with students in another. Once students have got to know their partners, the teachers arrange for them to engage in face-to-face discussions on particular cultural topics. Students are asked to tape-record all of their discussions and must also prepare an oral report on the specific topic. In preparing an oral report, students are being given the opportunity to reflect on the topic in more detail and practise their speaking skills. 2. Omaggio (2001) suggests that thinking up questions for a visiting native speaker is an interesting and productive activity. Students work in groups to formulate questions that they then use to interview the native speaker. Questions must be relevant to a particular topic such as education, politics or eating habits in the native speakers country. This activity can help foreign learners to get an insight into life in a foreign country thus minimising cultural shock when the students travel abroad. 3. (This next section is not very clear, you dont define speech act, you only talk about speech acts, no other sort of role-playing etc) According to Lanzaron (2001), role-playing is a good activity for highlighting cultural differences in speech such as, suggesting, complimenting and apologizing. Olshtain Cohen (1995) identify five stages in the process for the teaching of speech acts. The teacher should firstly assess the students level of speech act awareness. Secondly, the teacher provides some examples of the speech act in question, namely model dialogues and the students must guess the details, for example the relationship between the participants, their social status and the importance / relevance of the particular speech act. In the third stage, students are given a number of characteristic situations in the target society and they must establish how contextual variables influence the selection of the linguistic form of the speech act. During the fourth stage, students act o ut the speech act in a role-playing situation. Olshtain Cohen (1995) emphasise the need to provide students with lots of information and details about the role-relationship between the communicators and also about the situation. The role-playing session is followed by feedback and additional discussions and in this final stage, foreign students are brought to an awareness of the similarities and differences between speech act behaviours in their own culture and in the target culture. Shumin (2002) suggests that non-verbal videos could also be played in the classroom and students would describe or act out what they see. This activity is particularly useful for drawing students attention to important role that body language plays in communication in general, and specifically in the target language. Similarly, acting out short scenes from films or documentaries or pictures can be used to highlight a given cultural topic and encourage further discussion. Reading activities There are several different kinds of classroom activity that can be used by teachers for developing foreign students reading skills to include an intercultural component. These include critical reading, cultural bump activities and activities that place an emphasis on cultural extensive reading or written genres (not well explained). 1. According to Williams (2001), critical reading is reading a text in order to comment on it critically. This is a reflective activity, useful for promoting intercultural competence of learners while they practise their reading skills. Celce-Murcia Olshtain (2000) propose that in performing this activity, the common framework, which allows for pre-reading, during-reading and post-reading instruction, could be of help. For instance, a pre-reading activity could see a teacher asking foreign students to preview the passage and make a judgement as to whether the identified content is representative of their own culture or of the target culture. In the while-reading activity, the teacher could ask the students to not only discuss what is written but to also look at how the passage is describing the given topic. Finally, in the post-reading activity, students could be asked whether or not they think the content of the text would be different if it were to have been read by another reader or written by another writer in a different cultural context. 2. A culture bump is used to describe a situation where an individual from one culture finds himself or herself in a different, strange, or uncomfortable situation when interacting with persons of a different culture. Day Bamford (1998) suggest that teachers can use cultural bump situations as a means to educating students in the ways of another culture. This could be done by getting students to read about such a situation and follow this with a selection of written explanations of the behaviour of the individuals involved in the situation in multiple-choice format. The students can discuss these in order to arrive at an explanation for the bump. These discussions can increase students awareness of cultural differences and increase their tolerance of other types of behaviours. 3. Williams (2001) found that the examination of written genres is a useful activity for foreign students. He suggests that students are asked to analyse two written texts of similar genres but from different cultures, for example, an advice column in a daily newspaper. Students can gain a useful insight into the different ways everyday concerns are dealt with in different cultural contexts. Celce-Murcia Olshtain (2000) suggest that teachers could scramble the sentences of a cultural anecdote and ask their students are asked to put the anecdote back into the correct sequence. This type of activity is a beneficial one as it helps learners to establish and solve organizational problems in a given text (not sure this is of use, or maybe it needs more explanation?) Writing activities There are a variety of writing activities such as tandem email learning, inventing stories and story continuation, all of which can promote foreign students writing skills with a special focus on the intercultural component. 1. According to Dodd (2001), tandem email learning activities is considered to be an effective learning activity because it develops cross-cultural dialogue and engages learners in extended writing in a motivational way. Students learning English are offered native English speaking email contacts and they go on to develop the relationship whilst practising their writing skills. This benefits both parties as both are learning about the others language and culture. The teacher could further promote this by asking students to bring in some of the email exchanges in printed format and to present a short report on the exchange, with particular emphasis on what has been learned. 2. According to Omaggio (2001), inventing stories can be used to promote the cultural imagination of learners through writing. The teacher collects several magazines and chooses a number of pictures, which show people in the target culture in strange situations. Students are then split into small working groups and each group should describe what they see in their picture. They should also make some educated guesses as to what is happening in the picture. Each group then shows the picture and presents their findings to the class as a whole. The other class members then have the opportunity to agree or disagree with the groups interpretation. 3. Story continuation could be used to develop understanding of cultural differences. The teacher should choose passages, which ideally are narrative texts with varied paragraphs leading the reader towards a cultural misunderstanding. Having let the students read the first part of the text, the teacher then encourages them to continue in their own words. Students can then compare their results with the original text. (this is very vague, an example would help, any quotes you can use?) Conclusion Intercultural communication is communication in all its forms between individuals or groups from different cultures. Hitherto, foreign language teaching sought to develop linguistic competence whereas now, the major goal of foreign language teaching is to develop students intercultural communicative competence. Teaching the four basic language skills with intercultural communication competence as the main focus ensures that students are taught to communicate appropriately and fluently in the target language and culture. It also ensures they can interact appropriately with people from other countries in real life. The teaching activities as described above, all of which encourage intercultural communication, ensure that students are equipped with not only useful background information, but the skills required for intercultural communication, such that they can use the target language in a native way.